语言学概论期末复习（男神版）

语言学概论 Chapter 1

Invitations to Linguistics 1.What is language?

Senses of language in Webster’s New World Dictionary (our book, p. 2) “Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. “(Wardaugh)

2.Design features of language语言设计特征 1. arbitrariness (任意性) 2. duality (双重性)

3. Creativity (创造性) or productivity 4. displacement (移位性) 5. interchangeability (互换性) 6. specialization (专业化)

7. cultural transmission （文化传承） 3.Functions of Language(语言功能) Jakobson’s view: 1.Emotive(情感功能) 2.Referential（指代功能) 3.Poetic(诗学功能) 4.Phatic（寒暄功能） 5.Metalingual(元语言) 6.Conative(意动功能)

Halliday’s view: 1.ideational function (概念功能) 2.Interpersonal function（人际功能） 3.Textual function（语篇功能） Functions

on

the

book:

http://www..com/doc/8f9666954.html,rmative(告知性的)

2.Interpersonal Function(人际功能)

3.Performative(行事功能) 4.Emotive Function

5.Phatic Communion（寒暄功能） 6.Recreational Function(娱乐功能) 7.Matalingual Function(元语言功能) 4．What Is Linguistics

Linguistics is the scientific study of language or the science of language.

1) Exhaustiveness（穷尽性）2) Consistency（贯通性） 3) Economy（经济性） 4) Objectivity（客观性） http://www..com/doc/8f9666954.html,petence performance

言语能力 vs. 言语行为

N oam Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. C ompetence refers to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.

P erformance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.

Chapter 2 Speech sounds

1.Consonants and vowels

Distinction between consonants and vowels: the obstruction （阻塞） of airstream

2.Minimal pairs and minimal sets（最小对立体）

① When two words are identical in every way except for a contrast in one sound segment occurring in the same position in the string, the two words are called a minimal pair 最小对立体. E.g: pit and bit junk and chunk ban and bin bet and bat

vs.

②A minimal pair should follow three conditions: 1) they are different in meaning; 2) they differ only in one sound segment; 3) the different sounds occur in the same position in the strings. Chapter 3

From morpheme to phrase 1.R oot & affix

Root 词根: 1.a morpheme which is the basic part of a word.（Occur on its own、may be joined to other roots、or take affixes (manly, coldness) or combining forms (biochemistry)

2 It is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.

3．All words contain a root morpheme Affix词缀: 1.a letter or sound, or group of letters or

sounds(=a morpheme), which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word.（Prefix前缀,Suffix后 缀，infix中缀：feet，geese）

2. inflectional affix 曲折词缀 and derivational affix 派生词缀 Chapter 5 Meaning

1.The Referential Theory(所指理论)

①The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory. ②Reference 所指 refers to the relationship between a word and the object it denotes in the physical world, i.e. denotation 外延 in philosophy.

③Is a very popular theory (semantic triangle by Ogden and Richards in Meaning of Meaning ) ④Problems with this theory：Not every word has a reference 所指.

2. Sense relations 意义关系

Sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally

between one linguistic unit and another. *distinctions between sense and reference: The distinction between sense and reference is

comparable to that between connotation and denotation in philosophy

①The former refers to the abstract properties of an entity, while the latter refers to the concrete entities having these properties.

②Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.

③Reference in its wider sense would be the relationship between a word or phrase and an entity in the external world.

④So sense is intra-linguistic and reference is extra- l linguistic

3.3 kinds of sense relations: Synonymy （同义关系）

Semantic relation of sameness or similarity in meaning of two or more linguistic expressions. （absolute synonyms 绝对同义词、relative synonyms 相对同义词、Stylistic synonyms

文体同义词、Emotive synonyms 情感同义词、Collocational synonyms：搭配同义词）

Antonymy （反义关系）

·Relation of semantic opposition. ·three main sub-types：

1）Gradable antonymy （等级反义关系）：

They are gradable; the denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. There is an

intermediate ground between the two.（hot\\cold warm\\cool tall\\short big\\small ）

2Complementary antonymy（互补反义关系） The members of a pair in this type are complementary to each other. There is no

intermediate ground between the two.（alive\\dead odd\\even single\\married male\\female pass\\fail hit\\miss ）

3Converse antonymy（相反反义关系） The members of a pair in this type show the reversal of a relationship between two entities. They are also known as relational opposites. There are always two entities involved. One presupposes the other.（buy\\sell give\\receive husband\\wife teacher\\student above\\below before\\after） Hyponymy（上下义关系）

A relationship between two words, in which the

meaning of one of the words includes the meaning of the other word.

Sometimes a superordinate may be a superordinate to itself.

A superordinate may be missing sometimes. （red green yellow）

Hyponyms may also be missing.（uncle rice）

http://www..com/doc/8f9666954.html,ponential analysis (成分分析)

Componential analysis: (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of

meaning components or semantic features.

Usually, componential analysis is applied to a group of related words which may differ from one another only by

one or two components.

Semantic features 语义特征or semantic components are the basic unit of meaning in a word. The meanings of

words may be described as a combination of semantic features.

5. An integrated theory（整体理论）

The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they

are combined is usually known as the principle of compositionality(复合性原则） a dictionary a semantic theory

a set of projection rules 投射规则

The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words.

The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.(P.107) Chapter 6

Language and cognition 1.What is cognition

Two definitions about cognition:

①In psychology it refers to the mental processes of an individual with particular relation to the view that

argues that the mind has internal states (beliefs, desires, and intentions) and can be understood in terms of information processing.

②Mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgement.

2.W hat is psycholinguistics（心理语言学）

Definition： is the study of psychological aspects of languages;

it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.

6 subjects of research within psycholinguistics:

Acquisition(语言习得) Comprehension(语言理解) Language and thought Production(语言产出) Disorders（语言无序性） Neurocognition

3.W hat is Cognitive Linguistics?

Definition: is a newly established approach to the study of language.

Chapter 7

Language, culture and Society 1.L anguage and Culture ①What is culture :

Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food

culture etc.

②The relationship between language and culture A language not only expresses facts, ideas, or

events which represent similar world knowledge by its people, but also reflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks etc. In a word, language expresses cultural reality.

2.S apir-Whorf Hypothesis (萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设)

Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.

This hypothesis primarily suggests that our language will mould our view of the world.

But few people would tend to accept the original for this theory. Thus, two versions, strong version and weak version have been developed.

the strong version: the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior.

the weak version: the former influences the latter. 3.L anguage and society

①Definition of sociolinguistics(社会语言学):

Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society,

between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.

②The relatedness between language and society： 1) While language is principally used to

communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships.

2) Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. 3) To some extent, language, especially the

structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society

4) Judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic. 4.Halliday’s register theory:

Definition of register（语域）: The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Field of discourse（语场） refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language.

Tenor of discourse（语旨） refers “to whom the speaker is communicating”

Mode of discourse（语式） mainly refers to the means of communication.

Chapter 8 Language in use 1.What is Pragmatics the study of language in use. 2.Speech act theory

1)The first major theory in the study of language in

use, which originated with the Oxford philosopher John Langshaw Austin: How to Do Things with Words

2)Speech act: an utterance(表达) as a functional unit

in communication. In speech act theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning:

a.propositional meaning 命题意义(also known as locutionary meaning发话意义)

b. illocutionary meaning行事意义(also known as illocutionary force行事语力).

A speech act is a sentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionary force. 3) 2 types of sentences:

Performatives（施为句；行事话语）: an utterance which performs an act

Constative（表述句；述事话语）: an utterance which asserts something that is either true or false.

*It has even been suggested that there is no real difference between constative and implicit

performatives.All sentences can be used to do things. 3.A theory of the illocutionary act(行事行为理论) Three different types of act involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence:

Locutionary act（发话行为）is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.

Illocutionary act （行事行为）is using a sentence to perform a function，related to the speaker’s intention. Perlocutionary act（取效行为）is the result or

effects that are produced by means of saying something. 4.Categories of speech acts by Searle

1. Representative（阐述类）:stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true (e.g. I swear…)

2. Directives（指令类）: trying to get the hearer to do something.(e.g.Your money or your life.)

3. Commissives（承诺类）:committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.

(e.g. I promise..)

4. Expressive（表情类）:expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state(e.g. Thank you…) 5. Declarations（宣告类）: bring about immediate changes by saying something.(e.g. you are fired...) 5.The theory of conversational implicature 会话含义理论 The second major theory in the study of language in use proposed by Herbert Paul Grice: Logic and Conversation. 1)Definition: Conversational implicature is a type of meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims 2)Characteristics of implicature: calculability（可计算性）

cancellability/ defeasibility（可删除性/可取消性） Non-detachability（非可分离性） Non-conventionality（非规约性）

1. The cooperative principle合作原则: The co- operation between speakers in using the conversational maxims is called the cooperative principle.

2.Conversational maxim对话准则: an unwritten rule about conversation which people know and which influences the form of conversational exchanges Grice introduced 4 categories of maxims: a. the maxim of Quantity b. the maxim of Quality c. the maxim of Relation d. the maxim of Manne r

6.Post-Gricean developments 1) Relevance theory 关联理论

Definition:Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.（每一个明示交际行为都传递一种假设：该行 为本身具备最适宜关联） 2)the Q- and R-principle

These two principle was proposed by Laurence Horn ①The Q-principle is intended to invoke the first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the Relation maxim, but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricean maxims.

②Horn reduces all the Gricean maxims to two principles: the Q- and R-principle

A. The Q-principle (hearer- based): Make your contribution sufficient Say as much as you can

B. The R-principle (speaker-based): Make your contribution necessary Say no more than you must

In other words, the Q-principle is concerned with the content. The R- principle, on the other hand, is concerned with the form.

Chapter 11

Linguistic and Foreign Language Teaching 1.Definition:

SLA:Second language acquisition 二语习得 CPH :Critical Period Hypothesis 关键期假设 UG：Universal Grammar 普遍语法

LAD：Language Acquisition Device 语言习得基质 IL：Interlanguage 中介语

CA：Contrastive Analysis对比分析 EA: Error Analysis 错误分析 2．Universal Grammar 普遍语法

Universal grammar holds that there are certain basic structural rules that govern language that all humans know

without having to learn them. 3. Input and language learning

Language Acquisition Device 语言习得基质 ·Krashen’s Input Hypothesis

1）There were two independent means or routes of second language learning: acquisition and

learning.

Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. Learning as another route is a conscious learning of the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.

2）Krashen put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving

“comprehensible input”. He defined

comprehensible input as “i+1”: “i” represents learners’ current state of knowledge, the next stage is i+1.

4.Inter language (IL,中介语):

Definition: is defined as an abstract system of learners’ target language system, it has now been widely used to refer to the linguistic expressions learners produce (especially the wrong or not idiomatic ones) or learner language.

5.Contrastive analysis and error analysis

对比分析与错误分析

●Contrastive analysis (CA) is a way of comparing

languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation. The goal is to predict what areas will be easy to learn and what areas will be difficult to learn.

●Error analysis (EA)involves, first independently or

objectively, describing the learner’s interlanguage (that is, their version of the target language and the target language itself), then a comparison of the two is followed to locate mismatches.

●Two main sorts of errors:

interlingual errors 语际错误 intralingual errors 语内错误.