1. pragmatics:
自测：Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. (T/F)
术语：pragmatics语用学
解释：语用学处理的是语言的实际意义，是在应用中的意义，而不是固有的意义。
术语：Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 语用学是研究某一语言的言者是如何利用句子成功进行交际的。
解释：
Pragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost concerned with the
study of what is communicated by a speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader. Analysis of intentional meaning necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through language in a particular context. Intended meaning may or may not be explicitly expressed. Pragmatic analysis also explores how listeners/readers make inferences about what is communicated.语用学对意义的研究主要关注的是说者或作者要交流的是什么，听者或读者读到的是什么。 并且根据语境分析要表达的意义。语用学分析还探索着读者或听者对交流意义的推断。
2. Context:
自测：What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.
A. reference B. speech act C. practical usage D. context
术语：Context 语境
解释：语义学和语用学的区别在于是否将语境考虑在内。
术语：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语用学研究的一个基本概念。一般认为语境包括说话者和听话者双方所共有的知识。
解释：
Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 一般认为语境包括说话者和听话者双方所共有的知识：双方在他们所使用的语言方面的知识；双方对世界的认识，包括对世界总的认识和对正的进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。
3. utterance meaning:
自测：The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable. （T/F）
术语：utterance meaning 话语意义
解释：一个句子的话语意义是具体的、依赖于语境的。
术语：The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 话语意义是具体的、受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义，它是一个句子的抽象意义在一个真实的交际语境中的实现，简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。
解释：It refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered.
话语意义指的是人们在实际交谈中句子的含义，句子意义成为话语意义在于实际说话的环境是否被考虑在内。
4. sentence meaning:
自测：The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent. （T/F）
术语：sentence meaning句子意义
解释：句子意义是抽象的，非语境化的。
术语：The meaning of a sentence is often considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. 句子意义通常被看成是抽象的、非语境化的，从 命题角度看是句子本身所具有的内在特征。
解释： It refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.句子意义指的是一个句子的意义或语法概念的意义。句子意义通常是根据橘子的谓语研究句子内在固有的意义。
5. Constative: 叙述句
自测： C________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.
术语：Constative: 叙述句
解释：叙述句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证其真假。
术语：Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable. 叙述句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证其真假。
解释：Sentence like “I pour some liquid into the tube” is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. The speaker cannot pour any liquid into the tube by simply uttering these words. He must accompany his words
with actual pouring. Otherwise one can accuse him of making a false statement. Sentences like this are called constatives. 像“I pour some liquid into the tube” 这样的句子是对说话人正在做的事情的描述。说话人不可能通过这几个词就把液体倒进试管里面，他必须同时真的施动，否则我们可以说他在撒谎，这样的句子就被称为叙述句。
6. Performative:行为句
自测：P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.
术语：Performative:施为句
解释：施为句既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。
术语：Performatives, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act. They are the statements which are used to do something. 施为句是用来做事的，它的功能是施动一个特别的行为。施为句既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。
解释：A performative is a sentence like “I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth”, which does not describe things and cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of a performative sentence is, or is a part of the doing of an action. Verbs like “name” are known as performative verbs. 像“I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth” 这样的句子就被称为施为句。它们不是描写事物，没有真假。说出这样的句子就是，或者说至少部分是，实施一种行为，因此像“name”这样的词就被称为
“施为动词”。
7. locutionary act:言内行为
自测：A l_________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
术语：locutionary act:言内行为
解释：言内行为是发出词、短语、从句的动作。它是通过句法、词汇和音位的方式来传达字面意义的行为。
术语：A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. 言内行为是发出词、短语、从句的动作。它是通过句法、词汇和音位的方式来传达字面意义的行为。
解释：The locutionary act----an act of saying something,uttering words,
phrases,clauses, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance); It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. 言内行为是一种说词、说短语、说从句的行为， 是一个对有意义的话语的表达；言内行为是种通过句法、词汇和音位的方式来传达字面意义的行为。
8. illocutionary act: 言外行为
自测：An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the
act performed in saying something.
术语：illocutionary act: 言外行为
解释：言外行为是表达说话人意图的行为，是在说话过程中所完成的行为。
术语：An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something. 言外行为是表达说话人意图的行为，是在说话过程中所完成的行为。
解释：The illocutionary act----an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking). 言外行为，是一种边说边做的行为。比如，在说X的时候，我正在做Y（在说话的时候表达说话者的目的）
9. perlocutionary act: 言后行为
自测： __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.
A. A locutionary act B. An illocutionary act
C. A perlocutionary act D. A performative act
术语：perlocutionary act: 言后行为
解释：言后行为指的是听话者对说话者说的话的反应。
术语：A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. 言后行为是由说某事或因为说某事而执行的动作；它是由话语引起的后果或变化是由说某事而执行的动作。
解释：The perlocutionary act----an act performed as a result of saying
something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z. It is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.言后行为，是一种因为说了什么而引起的行为：通过说X并做Y，我做了Z。它是由话语引起的后果或变化是由说某事而执行的动作。
10. Cooperative Principle: 合作原则
自测： __________ is advanced by Paul Grice
A. Cooperative Principle
B. Politeness Principle
C. The General Principle of Universal Grammar
D. Adjacency Principle
术语：Cooperative Principle: 合作原则
解释：合作原则是保尔·格莱斯提出的。
术语：It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviors. The content is : Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.合作原则是保尔·格莱斯提出的。内容如下：是你所说的话，在其发生的阶段，符合你所参与的交谈的公认目标或方向。
解释：It’s proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. 合作原则是保尔·格莱斯提出的一个语用学假说，指的是参与者首先必须愿意合作，否则，谈话很难继续进行下去。
11. 言语行为理论Speech act theory
自测：Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.
A. in the late 50’s of the 20th century
B. in the early 1950’s
C. in the late 1960’s
D. in the early 21st century.
术语：Speech act theory 言语行为理论
解释：言语行为理论是奥斯汀在20实际50年代末提出的。奥斯汀放弃他当初对叙事
句和行为句所做的区分。建立了两一种模式来解释如何通过语言实施行为。
术语： The concept of constatives, performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act suggested and formulated by Austin constitute the speech act theory. 叙事句、行为句、言内行为、言外行为和言后行为的概念的提出，共同构成了奥斯汀提出的言语行为理论。
解释：It’s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.It’s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question “what do we do when using language?” 言语行为理论是语用学研究中的重要理论。它是哲学上的对语言交流的本质的解释。它旨在回答“当我们使用语言的时候我们在干什么”这样的问题。
12. 会话含义Conversational implicatures
自测：When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.
A. impoliteness B. contradictions
C. mutual understanding D. conversational implicatures
术语：会话含义Conversational implicatures
解释：当人们违反了会话原则，会话含义就会产生。
术语：According to P.Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in the utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP. 话语的言外之义就是会话含义，是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。
解释：In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from one another. However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature. 在日常生活中，只有当说话者与听话者具有共同意识，或者听话者知道说话者为什么有意违背说话原则中的某一个准则，听者才能明白说话者真正想表达的意义，也就是会话含义。
13. the maxim of Quantity-----数量
自测：There has been a maxim in_____which claims that “You are what you say.”(中山大学2008研)
术语：the maxim of quantity 数量准则
解释： 数量准则要求你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求。是四种会话准则之一。
术语：Make your contribution as informative as required; Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.数量准则要求你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求。
解释：If the information is more than required or less than required, then you violate the the maxim of quantity.如果你的回答的东西比要求的多或者少，都是违背数量准则的。
14. the maxim of Quality
自测：According to the conversation maxim of________suggested by Grice, one should speak truthfully.(西安外国语学院2006研)
A. Quantity B. Quality C. Relevance D. manner
术语：the maxim of quality质量准则
解释：质量准则是格莱斯提出的准则之一，不违背质量准则就要说真话，不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话。
术语：Do not say what you believe to false. Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence. 不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话
解释：If the information you gave was false or lack of evidence, then you violate the maxim of quality.如果一个人问你问题，你给的回答是虚假的或者没有依据可支撑，那么你就违背了质量准则。
15. 关系 the maxim of relation
自测：There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of __________, the maxim of quality, the maxim of quantity and the maxim of manner.
术语：the maxim of relation 关系准则
解释：关系准则是四大话语准则之一，关系准则要求你的话要与话题相关。
术语：It means the utterance should be relevant.关系准则要求你的话要与话题相关。
解释：If the speaker refused to make what he said relevant to others for his own purpose, then, you had violate the maxim of relation. 如果说话者为了自己的目的说了不相关的话，那么他就违反了关系准则。
16. 方式 the maxim of manner
自测：There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of __________, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of quantity.
术语： the maxim of manner方式准则
解释：方式准则要求说话者避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序。
术语：Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity; Be brief/be orderly. 方式准则要求说话者避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序。
解释：If the utterance is obscure, not brief enough or not orderly, then, the utterance violate the maxim of manner.如果话语是模糊的、不够简洁的或者是不够有序的，那么，这句话就违背了方式准则。
17. Representatives阐述性
自测：According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.
A. to get the hearer to do something
B. to commit the speaker to something’s being the case
C. to commit the speaker to some future course of action
D. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.
术语：Representatives阐述性
解释：阐述类是说话人对自己认为真实的事情做出陈述或者描述。
术语：It refers to commit the speaker to something being the case ,to the truth of what has been said. 阐述类是说话人对自己认为真实的事情做出陈述或者描述。
解释：stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true. Stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives. 陈述或描述，说出言者认为正确的东西。陈述、相信、发誓、假设是最为典型的阐述类词。
18. 指令性Directives
自测：___________ are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some-thing.
术语：指令性Directives
解释：指令类指的是试图让听者做某事。
术语：Directives are trying to get the hearer to do something.指令类指的是试图让听者做某事。
解释：Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening, ordering are all specific instances of this class. 指令类是言者让说者做某事的企图。邀请、建议、要求、忠告、警告、威胁、命令都是这一类别中的具体的例子。
19. 承诺性Commissives
自测：According to Searle,those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called _______.( )
A.commisives B.directives C.expressives D.declaratives
术语：Commissives 承诺类
解释：言者对某一个未来的动作做出承诺。
术语：It refers to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called commissives.言者对某一个未来的动作做出承诺。
解释：When the speaking of the speaker puts himself under obligation, commissives then produced.Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical of the commissives.如果说话者让自己有了某种责任，承诺就产生了。承诺、责任和誓词是承诺类的典型。
20. 表达类Expressives
自测：The illocutionary point of ( ) is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance.
A. representatives B. commissives
C. expressives D. Declaratives
术语：Expressives表达类
解释：表达类的言外行为是指在该话语中详细表达心理逻辑状态。
术语：It refers to expressing feeling or attitude towards an existing state.表达类指的是表达对存在的状态的感情或观点。
解释：The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance.The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs. Apologizing ,thanking, congratulating are the most typical of expressives.言者是在表达对存在的状态的感情或态度。表达类的言外行为是指在该话语中详细表达心理逻辑状态。例如：道歉、感谢、祝愿。
21. 宣告类Declarations
自测：_______refers to bringing about immediate changes by saying something.
术语：Declarations宣告类
解释：宣告类是一种言语行为，如果成功履行将改变事情的状态。
术语：It refers to bringing about immediate changes by saying something.宣告类指的是通过说某事带来的立刻的变化。
解释：Declarations have the characteristic that the successful performance of such an act brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.
“宣告类”的特征是：这种行为的成功执行会带来所说的话与现实之间的一致。
22. Indirect speech act
自测：The Indirect Speech Act was developed by ___________.（东南大学2000研）
A. John Austin B. Levinson C.John Lyons D. John Searle
术语：Indirect speech act 间接言语行为
解释：间接语言行为也是舍尔提出的一种语言行为理论。
术语：One illocutionary act is performed indirectly by the way of performing another are indirect speech.间接言语行为是通过实施另一种施事行为的方式来间接的实施某一种施事行为。
解释：According to Searle, when a speaker is using indirect language, he is performing two speech acts simultaneously: one is the primary speech act and the other is the second speech act. The primary one is the speaker’s goal of communication and the second one is the means by which he achieves his goal. 瑟尔认为，说话人使用间接引语时，他是在执行两种言语行为：主要行为和次要行为。主要行为是说话人的交流目标，次要行为是为达到目标所使用的方式。
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