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R. C. Gardner

Department of PsychologyUniversity of Western Ontario

My intent today is to present an overview of our research on the Socio-educational Model

of Second Language Acquisition. Little did I realize when I was working on my MA thesis, thatit would form the foundation for much of the research that I would pursue over my career. Theinitial idea for my thesis began with a conversation between Wally Lambert and me, and theGardner and Lambert (1959) paper was the last of three studies in my MA thesis (Gardner,1958).

There wasn’t much of a literature associated with this type of research. Historically, it

was generally believed that learning languages was the sign of an educated person (Kelly, 1969),and that a major determinant of success in doing so was the individuals’ level of intelligence. Asa consequence, tests of intelligence came to be used as predictors of ultimate success. Later,some dissatisfaction was expressed with these tests (Henmon, 1929), and there developed anumber of “special prognosis tests” in order to improve prediction (see, for example, Symonds,1929). These special prognosis tests ultimately gave way to measures of language aptitude, testsof various verbal abilities believed necessary to succeed in learning another language (Carroll,1958). There was also some research concerned with the relation of attitudes toward thelanguage course and its relation to success in the course (Jordan, 1941). But that was it!

My MA thesis was based on the hypothesis that in order to learn another language well,

an individual had to have some reason for doing so that involved the other-language community,and our focus was on such reasons as well as on indices of attitudes toward the other languagecommunity, motivation, authoritarianism, audience anxiety, and sex. The first two studies in mythesis were essentially pilot studies; the thesis really came together in the third study. That studyinvestigated a sample of 75 grade 11 English speaking students in Montreal learning French inthe regular school program. It involved a factor analysis of 14 variables, comprising onemeasure of achievement in French, 7 language aptitude and verbal intelligence tests, and the 6 This manuscript was the basis of a talk delivered in a symposium on “Perceptions on

motivation for second language learning on the 50th anniversary of Gardner & Lambert (1959)”at the annual meetings of the Canadian Association of Applied Linguistics/ Associationcanadienne de linguistique appliquée, Ottawa, May, 2009.

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non-ability variables listed above.

Two of the four factors extracted obtained high loadings from the measure of Frenchachievement suggesting that there were two factors involved in learning French. One wasidentified as a linguistic aptitude dimension because it received high loadings from the 7 verbalability measures, confirming that achievement in French was related to language aptitude. Theother was defined as a motivation factor; it received high loadings from the measures ofmotivation, attitudes toward French Canadians, and the orientation index. This latter variable forced students to choose between integrative and instrumental reasons for learning French asmost applicable to them, and was scored dichotomously such that a high score reflected anintegrative reason. Thus, the factor was interpreted as indicating that those students whoexpressed integrative reasons for learning French, were more highly motivated and had morefavourable attitudes toward French Canadians and were more successful at learning French. Weconcluded that the factor described a “motivation of a particular type, characterized by awillingness to be like valued members of the language community” (p. 271, italics in theoriginal).

Investigation of the correlation matrix reveals that only three of the variables had

correlations with achievement that were significant at the per family .05 level once a Bonferroniadjustment was applied to account for the 13 correlations computed. The three significantpredictors were Verbal Analogies (r = .42), Motivational Intensity (r = .40), and the OrientationIndex (r = .34). Because the Orientation Index was a dichotomous measure, the significantcorrelation indicated that individuals who were integratively oriented were more successful atlearning the second language than were individuals who were instrumentally oriented. This, as itturns out was the one finding that caught the interest of many researchers and educators. Eventoday, there are discussions of the relative potency of integrative and instrumental orientations inlearning a second language.

The socio-educational model of second language acquisition is much more complex thanthis, however, and for the last 50 years, I have been conducting research devoted to examiningthe implications and consequences of the motivation that was initially identified in the factorstructure of the 1959 study. The relevant research includes:

a. 1959-1960: My Ph.d. dissertation.b. 1960-1962: The American studies.

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Wally Lambert and I conducted studies in three parts of the United States, Maine,Louisiana, and Connecticut. Samples of English speaking highschool students were obtainedfrom the three areas, and samples of students from Franco-American homes were tested in Maineand Louisiana. This research was subsequently published (Gardner & Lambert, 1972).

c. 1972-1974: The London, Ontario studies.

In 1971, P.C. Smythe and I applied to the Ontario Ministry Grants- in-Aid to Educationprogram to investigate the role of aptitude and motivation in determine achievement in Frenchamong students in grades 7 to 11 in London, Ontario. From the beginning, we endeavoured toidentify variables that appeared to be important for language learning based on our experience, and observations from a number of language educators in the London system. Because a numberof variables were considered, we made use of a construct oriented approach to scale constructionrather than a factor analytic one. In this approach, potential items were written and debated byour staff following explicit definitions of the concepts. Once the scales were administered, itemanalyses were conducted and the items selected were those that correlated more highly with theirintended scale than with the other scales. This was done separately for each of the five gradelevels of students, and the final set of items were selected so that they were equally applicable toeach of the grade levels (see Gardner & Smythe, 1975). This marked the beginning of theAttitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB).

d. 1974-1980: The Cross Canada Research

Based on this research, we applied for financial support from the Secretary of

State to conduct similar studies in various parts of Canada, ultimately obtaining data fromsamples in British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, and New Brunswick.

e. 1980 - 2000: Continuation of the research program.

With the financial assistance of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council ofCanada, we conducted a number of studies in a number of different contexts and circumstances.

f. 2000- present: The International studies.

Initially, with support from SSHRCC, we conducted international studies of the AMTBfocusing on English as a foreign language. We have obtained information on two age/gradesamples in six countries, Croatia, Poland, Romania, Spain, Brazil, and Japan.

As it has developed, the AMTB has a definite structure that comprises 11 scales

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measuring five constructs. The five constructs are Attitudes toward the learning Situation(ALS), Integrativeness (INT), Motivation (MOT), Language Anxiety (ANX), and InstrumentalOrientation (INO). For young students, we have one additional measure, Parental

Encouragement (PE). Table 1 presents the five constructs and the scales used to assess them.

Table 1

Constructs and Scales from the AMTB

Construct

Motivation

Scales

Motivational intensity

Desire to learn the language

Attitudes toward learning the languageIntegrative orientation

Interest in foreign languages

Attitudes toward the target language communityLanguage teacher evaluationLanguage course evaluationLanguage class anxietyLanguage use anxietyInstrumental orientation

Integrativeness

Attitudes toward the Learning SituationLanguage AnxietyInstrumentality

Much of our initial research involved the scales directly and their relation to each other aswell as to other variables associated with second language acquisition. Later, attention wasdirected to aggregate scores assessing each of the constructs. These aggregates are based on theitem mean-level scores so that, on a seven point scale, aggregate scores vary from 1 to 7. Insome research, some of these aggregate scores were in turn aggregated to form a score thatcharacterized integrative motivation. As currently conceptualized, integrative motivation isreflected in four of these measures. This doesn’t mean to suggest that there is such a thing as “anintegrative motive” like, for example, a hunger motive, etc... It means simply that an individualcan be said to be integratively motivated if he/she:

1. Is motivated to learn the language

2. Exhibits integrativeness - - i.e., an openness to other cultural communities3. Has favourable attitudes toward the learning situation

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4. Reflects low levels of language anxiety

Thus, if a researcher wanted to obtain one score to reflect integrative motivation (IM),she/he could compute an aggregate of the four mean aggregate scores:

IM = INT + ALS + MOT - ANX.

Note that this conceptual organization recognizes that these variables will be related toeach other, but it does not imply that they would necessarily form one dimension in a factoranalytic investigation. This might well be the case depending on the nature of the sample andthe variables involved (as they have in some studies) but they need not do so. In fact, in onemultimethod analysis (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993) involving university students of French inLondon, five factors were obtained reflecting the five constructs listed in Table 1. Thus, theconcept of the integrative motive is much more complex than simply expressing an integrativeorientation in language study. Studies that contrast individuals who express integrative vsinstrumental reasons for studying the language are dealing with only a small part of what weconsider integrative motivation. Furthermore, we recognize that individuals can be motivated tolearn another language for many reasons but if integrativeness is low, it would not becharacterized as an instance of integrative motivation.

The Socio-educational Model of Second Language Acquisition.

Much of our research was based on the socio-educational model of second languageacquisition which proposes that achievement in a second language is largely a function of twoindividual difference variables, language aptitude and motivation. This does not mean to playdown the influence of various educational practices designed to improve on the quality ofinstruction, but simply to recognize that the success of such practices will be mediated bycharacteristics of the individual student, and that language aptitude and motivation arehypothesized to be the dominant ones. That is, a good practice will have a greater influence onstudents with high levels of language aptitude and motivation.

Very little research has been done on factors that will influence an individuals level oflanguage aptitude, but the bulk of our research suggests that there are two factors that can serveas support for motivation. One is referred to as the educational context (see Gardner, 2007). This refers to any characteristic of the educational environment that can play a role in motivatingthe student to learn the language, varying from policies of the relevant board of education to the

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general environment in the school (i.e., the principal’s views of language instruction) and moredirectly the language classroom environment. In the AMTB, focus is placed on evaluation of thecourse and the teacher largely because they are the main point of contact for the individualstudent (but see Gardner, Smythe & Pierson, 1983). The second context is the cultural one (cf.,Gardner, 2007) which refers to any aspect of the individual’s social world that has implicationsfor second language learning. It can include such things a cultural beliefs concerning therelevance and importance of language study, purposes for second language learning, homebackground characteristics, peer pressure, etc... All of these features are expressed in theindividual’s attitudes, beliefs, ideals, expectations, etc., as they relate to learning the secondlanguage. In the AMTB, this general class is identified as integrativeness, referring to anopenness to other language communities, and is assessed by three measures, interest in foreignlanguages, an integrative orientation in language study, and favorable attitudes toward the targetlanguage community.

The Relation of Integrative Motivation to Second Language Achievement.

The AMTB has served as the foundation for much of our research and with it, we haveinvestigated a number of different phenomena associated with learning a second language. Inthe beginning, our initial focus was on identifying variables that appeared to influence the degreeof success an individual would have in learning the language. Thus, the dependent variableswere generally measures of achievement in the language, and the independent variables orpredictors were various measures of aptitude, attitudes and motivation, primarily, but not alwaysthe 11 scales forming the AMTB. The majority of our studies (indicated in Table 2)

demonstrated that integrative motivation, as reflected in the four constructs that characterize it, isassociated with success in learning the language. Many of these studies made use of factoranalysis to determine the underlying dimensionality of the variables and often included measuresof language aptitude to identify the relative contribution of ability and motivation. In morerecent years we have tended to focus less on the individual measures and more on aggregatescores representing the five constructs assessed by the AMTB (or six, if ParentalEncouragement is included for young students).

The relative contributions of Integrativeness, Attitudes toward the Learning Situation,Motivation and the two orientations (Integrative and Instrumental) were the subject matter of a

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meta-analysis of this research. It demonstrated that Motivation was by far the highest correlateof achievement followed by Integrativeness and Attitudes toward the Learning Situation(Masgoret & Gardner, 2003). The two orientations, by themselves, demonstrated much lowercorrelations with the integrative orientation tending to be a slightly higher correlate than theinstrumental orientation, on average.

Table 2

Studies concerned with Predicting Language Achievement in Classroom Contexts

Type of Study

Prediction of Language Achievement

Publications

Gardner & Lambert (1959)Gardner & Lambert (1972)Gardner & Smythe (1975)

Gardner, Smythe, Clément & Gliksman (1976)

Clement, Gardner & Smythe (1977)Clément, Major, Gardner & Smythe (1977)

Gardner (1980)

Clément, Gardner & Smythe (1980)

Gardner & Smythe (1981)

Gardner (1985)

Lalonde & Gardner (1985)

Gardner (2006)

Masgoret & Gardner (2003)

Meta Analysis

The Relation of Integrative Motivation to Other Types of Variables.

We have investigated other aspects of second language acquisition and their relation to

the indices of integrative motivation, finding positive associations (for relevant areas of study,see Table 3). Thus, we demonstrated that students who exhibited high scores on the indices ofintegrative motivation participated more actively in language class, volunteering and respondingcorrectly more frequently and showing greater satisfaction with the class, were more likely tocontinue language study rather than drop out when the course was no longer required, were moreactive in trying to maintain their language skills after their language training was finished, andwere more likely to take part in bicultural excursion programs and seek contact with members ofthe language community than students scoring lower on these indices.

An investigation of personality correlates of measures of Language Achievement,

Language Aptitude, Integrativeness, Motivation and Attitudes toward the Learning Situation

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found relatively few correlates involving the personality measures. A structural equation modelrevealed that a personality construct, Analytic Orientation, defined by Breadth of Interest,Complexity, Innovation, and lack of Conformity accounted for differences in Integrativeness butwere not directly associated with either Motivation or Language Achievement.

Finally, an investigation of Home Background characteristics using a retrospectivedesign with university students studying psychology in which they completed a modified versionof the AMTB with some scales referring to their views when studying French in highschool andothers to their views at the time of testing. The results supported a causal model linking earlyviews with current attitudes, motivation, and self-perceptions of language proficiency.

Table 3

Other Types of Variables Investigated

Type of StudyLanguage classroom

behaviourPersistence in Language studySecond language retention

Publications

Gliksman, Gardner, & Smythe (1982)Clément, Smythe & Gardner (1978)Gardner (1982)

Gardner, Lalonde & MacPherson (1985)Gardner, Lalonde, Moorcroft & Evers (1987)Gardner, Moorcroft & Metford (19)

Gardner & Lysynchuk (1990)Gardner, Kirby, Smythe, Dumas, Zelman & Bramwell

(1974)

Clément, Gardner & Smythe (1977)Desrochers & Gardner (1981)

Lalonde & Gardner (1984)

Bicultural Excursion

Programs

Personality Correlates

Home Background Gardner, Masgoret & Tremblay (1999)

On the Process Underlying the Role of Integrative Motivation in Language Learning.

A number of our studies have focused on process (see Table 4). Initially, our studiesemployed factor analytic techniques to isolate factors underlying the various measures. Thisresearch demonstrated that variance associated with achievement in the language was oftenassociated with dimensions of aptitude and ability on the one hand and attitudes and motivationon the other. We argued as a consequence that two basic factors were associated with

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achievement in the language, aptitude and motivation. Later with the advancement of structuralequation procedures we evaluated specific “causal models”, demonstrating good indices of fit. The basic model treats Integrativeness and Attitudes toward the Learning Situation as twoexogenous variables that support Motivation while Motivation and Language Aptitude (whenincluded in a study) are viewed as influences of Second Language Achievement. LanguageAnxiety is included in some models, but in the development of second language achievement itis seen as a result of experiences with the language, and thus would be viewed as a variable thatis both a cause (exogenous variable) and an effect (endogenous variable) of languageachievement. Tremblay and Gardner (1995) tested a variant of the model that included anumber of other motivational components but the basic structure was maintained. Morerecently, we have made use of path analysis and hierarchical linear modeling procedures to testspecific aspects of the socio-educational model of second language acquisition and the effectsthat individual language classes have on the overall patterns identified. The results indicated thatalthough the model overall was clearly supported, there were class differences in some of thecoefficients, indicating that characteristics of the class could influence the viability of the model.

Other studies have focused on the language learning situation and their interaction withcharacteristics of integrative motivation. For example, we investigated changes in attitudes andmotivation over the duration of the class and related these to final levels of achievement in theclass. We demonstrated that students who began the year with high levels of attitudes andmotivation tended to be more successful in the course, but moreover that students who weremore successful in the course tended to maintain high levels of attitudes and motivation whilethose with lower grades showed lower levels at the end of the year, particularly in terms ofattitudes toward the language learning situation.

We found too that there was a general level of agreement between students and theirteachers about the use of teaching strategies in the classes, but that although there was nocorrelation between teacher’s reports of the use of teaching strategies and students motivation,there were significant correlations between the students’ perceptions of strategy use and theirlevels of motivation. That is, to the extent that students recognize that various strategies arebeing employed, this will impact on their levels of motivation. That research also demonstrated

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that student integrative motivation was higher in classes where teachers were highly motivated.Of course, this is not overly surprising, in that characteristics of the classroom environment caninfluence student motivation. We demonstrated this quite early in our research where wecontrasted a student centred program with the traditional three day a week university course. Indices of integrative motivation were higher in the student-centred program though theydecreased over the duration of the course for both types of classes.

Our research has been conducted in a number of different contexts in order to test thegenerality of the findings. In one study of intensive language programs, an integrative motivefactor was associated with French oral expression and satisfaction with the program at the end ofthe course for a Canadian sample but not for a sample of Americans suggesting that culturalbackground might influence the relationship of attitudinal motivational characteristics withachievement. In another study, achievement in the second language was more associated withlanguage aptitude than integrative motivation though integrative motivation was associated withthe intention to continue language study. The rather slim results of these studies might wellreflect the homogeneity of these participants. The samples consisted of individuals who hadenrolled in these short-term but intensive programs in order to improve their language skills, andthus it is likely that there were relatively few individual differences in levels of integrativemotivation.

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Table 4Focus on Process

Type of StudyStructural Equation Models

Publications

Gardner, Lalonde & Pierson (1983)

Gardner (1983)

Lalonde & Gardner (1984)

Gardner, Lalonde, Moorcroft & Evers (1987)

Gardner & Lysynchuk (1990)Tremblay & Gardner (1995)Gardner, Tremblay & Castillo (1997)Gardner, Tremblay & Masgoret (1997)Gardner, Masgoret & Tremblay (1999)

Bernaus & Gardner (2008)

Gardner, Masgoret, Tennant & Mihic (2004)

Gardner (2005)

Bernaus & Gardner (2008)Bernaus, Gardner & Wilson (in press)Gardner, Ginsberg & Smythe (1976)Gardner, Smythe & Brunet (1977)Gardner, Smythe & Clément (1979)Gardner, Moorcroft & Metford (19)

Hierarchical Linear ModelsChanges over the academic yearTeacher motivating strategies

Teacher motivationCourse related effectsIntensive language study

Laboratory Studies of Integrative Motivation and Language Learning.

In addition to investigating students of second languages, we have also conducted

laboratory studies to investigate specific hypotheses developing from our research (see Table 5). Some of them involved a paired associates learning paradigm where we studied the rate oflearning vocabulary in the other language. The results demonstrated that integratively motivatedindividuals learned the words at a faster rate than those who were not integratively motivated. One study contrasted integrative with instrumental motivation and demonstrated that bothinfluenced the rate of learning. Moreover, participants in the instrumental motivation conditionevidenced higher levels of motivation than those in the integrative motivation condition untilthey realized that they would not satisfy their goal, at which time their effort declined. Another

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study demonstrated that state motivation was influenced by trait motivation which in turn had adirect effect on the rate of learning the words.

The language laboratory also served as a venue for one study which assessed the relationof integrative motivation as assessed by a short form of the AMTB (the mini-AMTB) withperformance in a ten session independent-study multi-media laboratory. Students were tested inthe fifth and the tenth session. The results indicated that scores on the characteristics ofintegrative motivation were relatively stable over the duration of the program and that gradesobtained in the tenth session were higher for students with high levels of integrative motivationin both the fifth and the tenth session than for students with low levels.

Table 5

Laboratory Studies

Type of StudyRate of Vocabulary Learning

Publications

Gardner, Lalonde & Moorcroft (1985)

Gardner & MacIntyre (1991)Gardner, Day & MacIntyre (1992)Tremblay, Goldberg & Gardner (1995)

Gardner & Tremblay (1998)

Gardner & MacIntyre (1991)Tremblay, Goldberg, & Gardner (1995)Masgoret, Bernaus & Gardner (2001)

Tennant & Gardner (2004)

Type of MotivationState Motivationmini-AMTB

Integrative Motivation and Grades in English in the International Samples.

Much of our research has been conducted in Canada with samples of English and FrenchCanadian students learning the other official language, and it has often been stated that thisexplains the results obtained. That is, it has been argued that because Canada is a bilingualcountry, it would be expected that integrative motivation would be involved in the learning of asecond language (cf., Dörnyei,1990; Oxford & Shearin, 1994), but that it is doubtful that itwould apply equally to the learning of a foreign language. In recent studies, therefore, we turnedour attention to samples of students learning English as a foreign language in six differentcountries. We developed an international version of the AMTB, directed toward learning

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English as a foreign language, and administered it in the language of the research participants. Evidence indicates that the internal consistency reliability of the subtests and the factor structureof the AMTB are consistent over the six countries and similar to results obtained in Canada(Gardner, 2006). Table 5 presents the correlations of the integrative motive score referred toearlier and grades in English for samples of students in primary and secondary school students ineach of the six countries.2

Examination of Table 5 will demonstrate that the correlations are all consistently high(with the possible exception of the primary school students in Romania). The median correlationis .45, which is very close to the value of .50 that Cohen (1988) describes as a strong effect. Itshould be emphasized that these are simple bivariate correlations of the aggregate score with thecriterion, and not multiple correlations, and that such a level of predictive validity is notcommon. It should be noted too that there is relatively little variability in these validitycorrelations. That is the results tend to be very consistent; much higher so than if correlations ofthe elements of integrative motivation were considered separately. In short, there is considerableevidence that integrative motivation is implicated in the learning of a second language regardlessof the nature of the cultural context in which the research is conducted.

Students in Japan were from junior and senior university classes, and English grades

were not available. The criterion in this case is an aggregate of self ratings using a modifiedversion of the Cando scales assess self-perceptions of speaking, reading, understanding andwriting English.

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Table 5

Correlations of Integrative Motivation Score with Grades in the International Samples

Samples

Croatia: Primary SecondaryPoland: Primary SecondaryRomania: Primary SecondarySpain: Primary SecondaryBrazil: Primary SecondaryJapan: Junior (self-ratings) Senior (self-ratings)Conclusions.

The intent of this manuscript was to trace the development of the research associatedwith the concept of integrative motivation in second language acquisition and to clarify itsdefinition and measurement by means of the AMTB. As indicated, it is not a motive in the sameway as the hunger drive or any of the various social motive that have been proposed in theliterature. It is an inference made on the basis of an individual’s behaviour, emotions, andbeliefs, and involves four constructs, motivation, integrativeness, attitudes toward the learningsituation, and an absence of language anxiety. Similarly, it is not static; elements of it aresubject to change over time and consequence. It is relevant in the school context largely becausethe learning of a second language involves the acquisition of material that characterizes anothercultural community, and as such is different from other aspects of school learning. The socio-educational model of second language acquisition is consistent with other models of schoollearning that posit that school achievement is mediated by ability and motivation, but it adds theconstruct of integrativeness to recognize the importance of the individual’s openness toaccepting and incorporating material from these other cultures as part of his/her identity.

N166148185157152155302166154119214131

Correlation

.50.40.47.47.21.40.41.39.44.48.61.47

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