Argument 笔记

Analytical Writing

强化班笔记

李延隆

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“对于要去美国读研究生的人外国人来说，应该先考GRE，后考TOEFL。”

deductive argument：valid; invalid inductive argument：strong; weak

     

“Analyze an Argument” Task

无需讨论原文信息的真实性和准确性。 无需同意或反对原文的观点。 无需开放性的发表个人看法。

质疑 收敛 逻辑思维能力 语言表达能力

1. critical thinking 2. 熟读题目

Preparing strategies

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3. 积累闪光句式 4. 列出每道题的提纲 5. 形成各部分的论证模板 6. 全文练习10到20篇文章

How to analyze the topic

 Argument的题目结构

Evidence (support)  Conclusion  审题：分清论据结论；看清推理关系  结论前的标志词：

① therefore, thus, so, hence, consequently ... ② clearly ...

③ should, must ...

④ to do sth; in order to do sth ...  论据的种类 ① 事实 facts

② 统计 survey; statistics ③ 例子 examples ④ 类比 analogies ⑤ 对比 comparisons ⑥ 假设 assumptions  写作的目的：评价或质疑，并非批判或驳斥

以下是上海市交管局的一份报告：

去年，北京开始了机动车尾号限行制度。一年来，北京市交通拥堵情况大为改善。因此，为了缓解上海市的交通拥堵现象，我们应该学习北京的先进经验，也实行机动车尾号限行制度。

Argument题目的文字结构

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 题目的背景

① 注意专有名词(头衔, 公司名) ② 注意说话人的身份  题目正文  写作要求

建立因果关系的两种常用方法：

① 排除他因。 ② 无因既无果。

质疑因果关系的方法：列举他因

Argument的写作原则

 逻辑：切中要害  语言：言简意赅

Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no

unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts.

— William Strunk, Jr.

① 词汇：多变，正规书面语 ② 句式：多变，适度复杂

1. 2. 3.

读题时注意

论据、结论各自的讨论对象 所有的限定成分

绝对化词汇: all, any, every, only, most, best

No gear  Injury

rest / depend / rely / hang / hinge on / upon ...

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be based / built / founded on / upon ...

Argument writing steps

1. skim the topic and write the introductory paragraph

2. input topic sentences for body paragraphs 3. develop body paragraphs one by one 4. write the concluding paragraph

5. checking

How to write the introductory paragraph

① 复述结论 (C)

② 简要复述论据和假设 (E)

③ 对原文做让步 (C’)

④ 指出论证过程存在缺陷 (F)  evidence 52道  assumption 50道  question 62道  explanation 10道

he/she s/he (s)he

the arguer / author / writer / speaker / ‘title’

conclude claim assert state contend maintain

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recommend suggest advise advocate propose

predict / foretell forecast / foresee

project / expect / anticipate cause ...

be the (main / leading) cause of ... be responsible for ... trigger / spark / precipitate ... render + n. + adj.

result in ... bring about ... account for ... contribute to... play a part in ...是…的部分原因 give rise to ...

attribute / ascribe ... to ...

can be attributed / ascribed to ...

specious paradoxical

1.论据问题

(Flaws in evidence)

(1)调查类问题

(Problems about survey / statistics / study)

survey, poll, statistics, study, research, report, census ...

调查的三个步骤

 分子群体

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 

确定比例 随机取样

A.选择性样本(Selective sample)

e.g. 137 (135 140)

读题时注意

1. 论据结论各自的讨论对象 2. 所有的限定成分

3. 绝对化词汇: all, any, every, only, most, best

The arguer does not / fails to provide any evidence to prove that ...

We are not informed of whether ...

Information is not given concerning / regarding / respecting / with regard to / in regard to / as regards / in respect of / with respect to ...

As a logical consequence of this development, separate journals have now appeared aimed mainly towards either professional or amateur readership. (Graduate School Entrance Examination 2001)

be representative of ...

constitute a representative sample of ...

be typical of / typify / stand for / represent / characterize ...

正文段结构

① topic sentence 段首句☆ ② illustration 展开

③ paragraphic conclusion 段落总结☆ ☆向写作要求靠拢

This might not be the case. This is not necessarily the case. This is not always the case.

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enjoy … ☺ suffer from … ☹

 论据的种类 ① 事实 facts

② 统计 survey; statistics ③ 例子 examples ④ 类比 analogies ⑤ 对比 comparisons ⑥ 假设 assumptions

false comparison

incomplete comparison  论据的种类 ① 事实 facts

② 统计 survey; statistics ③ 例子 examples ④ 类比 analogies ⑤ 对比 comparisons ⑥ 假设 assumptions

cause-effect fallacies

The arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between A and B. 

The arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between homework frequency and student performance.

B.调查本身是否有意义.(Do the statistics make any difference?)

The author treats a lack of proof that something is the case as constituting sufficient proof that it is not the case.

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e.g. 54 (165)

The argument unfairly assumes that the fact there is no evidence that the humans had any significant contact with the mammals amounts to the fact that they had not such contact.

The ... treats a lack of proof that ... as constituting sufficient proof that ....

C.样本的数量 (Quantity of the sample)

e.g. 126 (113 127 161)

读题时注意

1. 论据结论各自的讨论对象 2. 所有的限定成分

3. 绝对化词汇: all, any, every, only, most, best

The result of the survey lacks credibility because the sample is too limited.

The mere sample of two graduates is too limited to constitute convincing evidence.

The arguer fails to establish causal relationship between ... and ... 

The arguer fails to establish causal relationship between taking the Easy Read Speed-Reading Course and the accomplishments of the two graduates.

can be attributed / ascribed to ... 

The arguer unfairly assumes that the accomplishments of the two graduates can be attributed / ascribed to taking the Easy Read Speed-Reading course.

He could not find his fifty pence piece anywhere, and what is more, he could not get his arm out. (NCE3-15)

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They will hardly know which facts to select from the great mass of evidence that steadily accumulates. What is more, they will not have to rely solely on the written word. (NCE3-38)

Howard: You’re not going with us. Sheldon: Why not?

Raj: You’re the guy we’re trying to get away from.

Sheldon: Oh. Well, in that case, I don’t need my jacket. And for the record, the correct syntax is ‘I’m the guy from whom you’re trying to get away.’

The arguer commits a fallacy of ... 

The arguer commits a fallacy of false analogy.

It is true that / Admittedly, / Granted, ..., but ...

Granted, a snobbery of camping itself, based upon equipment and techniques, already exists, but it is of a kind that, if he meets it, he can readily understand and deal with. (NCE4-47)

It is true that / Admittedly, / Granted, ..., but that is not to say that ... it does not follow that ...

it does not necessarily mean that ... there is no guarantee that ...

It is true that many college students choose to pursue their graduate studies, but it does not necessarily mean that they want to be scholars.

Even if many other companies benefited greatly from the course, it does not necessarily mean that Acme will derive equal benefit from it.

Even if many other companies benefited greatly from the course, there is no guarantee that Acme will / Acme is not guaranteed to derive equal benefit from it.

The assumption that ... is doubtful / questionable / open to doubt /

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open to question / open to debate ...

The arguer fails to convince us that all employees at Acme need to improve their reading speed.

loaded question e.g. 55

D.调查所问的问题是否恰当(What question was asked in the

survey?)

have little to do with ... be not directly related to ... bear little relation to ... have little connection to ... have little bearing on / upon ... be not a determinant factor in ...

E.调查的进行机构 (Who conducted the survey?)

e.g. 81

F.调查的时效性 (When was the survey conducted?)

general group subjects respondents

G.回应者是否诚实 (Are the respondents forthright?) anonymous / confidential

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H.回应者是否有代表性 (Are the respondents representative?) e.g. 43

let alone ...

not to mention ...

The baby can’t talk, let alone run.

He can’t run a hundred yards, let alone a mile.

I don’t suspect him of theft, let alone of robbery.

They own two houses, not to mention a yacht.

The dampness is unpleasant, not to mention the cold.

Moreover, the author has not shown any correlation, let alone a cause-and-effect relationship, between the number of hours a person spends watching television and that industry's profits. (Mark Alan Steward)

Without ruling out all other possible explanations for the grade-average increase, the dean cannot convince me that by terminating the evaluation procedure Omega would curb its perceived grade inflation, let alone help its graduates get jobs. (Mark Alan Steward)

In short, without ruling out other possible reasons for the strong sales the vice president cannot convince me that Plainsville residents are exercising regularly, let alone that they would be interested in buying the sorts of food and other products that NW sells. (Mark Alan Steward)

(2) 数据信息类问题

(Problems about data / information)

A. 模糊数据 (Vague data)

绝对总量和相对比例的混淆

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When I found myself in times of trouble, mother Mary comes to me, whisper words of wisdom, Let it be!

When I found myself in times of trouble, mother Mary tells me, go to Harvard law school, get a B!

e.g. 25 (100 102 1)

39 (174) base amount 41 (123 125)

B.信息不完整 (Incomplete information)

e.g. 73

We are not informed of the quality of the instruction and whether it is suitable for students of different ages and abilities.

We need more information with regard to the general employment condition of the school’s graduates.

The arguer fails to inform us of the tuition charged by the school and the affordability of students’ parents.

2.推理过程问题

(Flaws in the reasoning line)

(1)错误类比 (False analogy)

e.g. 77 (169)

The argument is based on a false analogy.

be based / founded / built on ... rest / depend / rely on ...

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unfounded, groundless, unsubstantiated, unwarranted, unauthenticated, unproven ...

way, aspect, respect ...

The mayor’s conclusion rests on an unsubstantiated assumption that OceanView and Hopewell are sufficiently alike in ways that might affect the economic impact of a new golf course and hotel.

comparable / comparability

i.e. e.g. etc.

ETA: Estimated Time of Arrival ETD: Estimated Time of Departure

NMD: National Missile Defense : Theater Missile Defense

THEATER : SOLDIER ring : boxer

arena：gladiator

e.g. 48

Despite the decline, Clearview’s housing costs might be still higher than the national average.

Non-neighboring towns may enjoy even lower taxes.

Even if property prices and taxes in Clearview are indeed relatively low, economy might not be the major concern for wealthier retirees.

commodity price

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(2) 横向比较纵向比较混淆(Confusing comparison and

variation)

food

transportation

A does not necessarily indicate B 

The number of physicians does not necessarily indicate the quality of health care.

判断信息不完整

作者在题目里面只告诉你什么，而没有告诉你什么

per capita number

Even though the number of physicians in Clearview is far greater than the national average, the per capita number might be comparatively low.

e.g. 170

unfair, unfairly

(3)不完整比较和选择性比较 /单方面信息

(Incomplete comparison and selective comparison /

Ex parte information)

It is unfair to draw the conclusion, based simply on two sections of roads, that Appian does a better work than Good Intentions.

Maybe the traffic on Route 101 is much busier than on Route 40.

weather, climate geological factors maintenance

(4)草率推广

(Hasty generalization)

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A.无关概念(Unrelated concepts) B.差异范围(Changing scopes) C.从过去推将来

(Inferring a future condition from a past condition)

A.无关概念(Unrelated concepts)

e.g. 75

A does not necessarily indicate B 

The number of dairy farms does not necessarily indicate the supply of milk.

The author assumes that the increase in the number of the dairy farms means the growth in the milk supply. However, this is not necessarily the case.

inflation

after adjustment for inflation

Another question that needs to be answered is how much the price of milk actually increased after adjustment for inflation.

inflation

after adjustment for inflation demand：supply cost：profit

e.g. 109 (17 93 110)

Although the overall music sales are in decline, there is still a

possibility that the sales of rock-and-roll music are actually increasing while the sales of other types of music, for some reason, are plummeting.

A is not a good indication of B 

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Even if the sales of rock-and-roll music do decrease as the author assumes, it is not a good indication of people’s unwillingness to listen to rock and roll music on the radio. The arguer unfairly assumes that older people do not prefer rock-and-roll music.

Cause-effect fallacy False analogy

B.差异范围(Changing scopes)

e.g. 63

all、every、any

PF / PC / CF / CP C.从过去推将来(Inferring a future condition from a past

condition)

e.g. 77 (169)

The mayor’s inference that the new municipal golf course and resort hotel which were beneficial to Ocean View’s economy in the past will also be beneficial in the future rests on the poor assumption that during the past two years all the conditions upon which their effectiveness depends have remained unchanged. Carlyle was entirely ignorant of what the bottle in his pocket contained, of the nature of the illness from which his friend was

suffering, and of what had previously been wrong with his wife, but a medicine that had worked so well in one form of illness would surely be of equal benefit in another, and comforted by the thought of the help he was bringing to his friend, he hastened to Henry Taylor's house. (NCE4-28)

The mayor’s inference that the new municipal golf course and resort

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hotel which worked so well to Ocean View’s economy in the past will surely be of equal benefit in the future rests on the poor assumption that during the past two years all the conditions upon which their effectiveness depends have remained unchanged.

(5) 未能全面衡量正负得失(Failing to weigh the advantages and

disadvantages thoroughly)

e.g. 12

34 (58 94)

profit = revenue − cost

Profit is factor of / is influenced by not only revenue but also costs / costs as well as revenue.

It is entirely possible / there is every likelihood that the costs of the monitoring system, such as the purchase, maintenance and updates of software, employment of extra personnel in charge of it, will offset or even outweigh additional revenue, if there is any.

(6)非此即彼, 极端选择

(False dilemma / either-or fallacy)

e.g. 15 (51 130 131 133)

Some customers may prefer the lower price of margarine.

3. 结论中的漏洞

(Flaws in the conclusion)

(1) 对策的充分性和必要性(Necessity and sufficiency of

the solution)

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为了得到美国大学研究生院的录取，我们需要在GRE考试中考到满分。 (in order) to ..., ... should / must / need to ...

如果我们在GRE考试中考到满分，就能得到美国大学研究生院的录取。 if / once ..., ... will / can ...

质疑方法:

必要性: 没它也行, 列举其他充分条件 充分性: 光它不够, 列举其他必要条件

e.g. 42

市场上有两种牡蛎：GC牡蛎和AC牡蛎，自从GC牡蛎发现了细菌后，消费者愿意花2倍的钱购买AC牡蛎。但是现在科学家发明了一种杀菌系统。一旦消费者了解到GC牡蛎安全性提高了，他们就会愿意花和AC牡蛎一样的价钱来购买GC牡蛎。

(2)未考虑结论的可行性

(Failing to consider the feasibility of the conclusion)

e.g. 44

定义攻击法(critique on term-definition) 1、模棱两可, 含糊不清 2、夸大其词, 危言耸听 3、无关概念, 草率推广  CCC未必影响环境和动物 (两个信息不完整, 一个数据模糊

性)

CCC未必污染, (段内让步)用于采矿比例未知, 和动物栖息地关系未知

 即便有影响, 结论的三个可行性问题  即使结论可行, 结论的两个充分性必要性。

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(7) 因果关系错

(cause-effect fallacies)

A. 直接无因果 (Non-causal relationship)

e.g. 46

The arguer fails to establish causal relationship between the recent decline in the economy and this year's unusually low expenditures on fitness-related products and services.

The low expenditures on fitness-related products and services do not necessarily result from the recent decline in the economy.

The arguer assumes that the recent decline in the economy is responsible for this year's unusually low expenditures on

fitness-related products and services. However, this might not be the case.

Another problem with the argument is lack of evidence that the recent decline in the economy contributes to this year's unusually low expenditures on fitness-related products and services.

Another question that needs to be answered / addressed is whether the recent decline in the economy is the cause of this year's unusually low expenditures on fitness-related products and services.

While overall fitness levels are highest in regions of Corpora where levels of computer ownership are also highest, they may be in decline in comparison with themselves.

B.同时性混淆为因果性 (Confusing concurrence with causality) e.g. 36 (163 166)

controlled study, controlled experiment counterparts

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C.时间先后混淆为因果性 (post hoc, ergo propter hoc) e.g. 71

D.因果倒置 (Confusing the cause and the effect)

e.g. 40

1. 结合例题把每个缺陷加深印象 2. 每类缺陷整理好论证思路 3. 每道题列提纲

1. 正文段数量和分量

3~4段为宜 每段3~8句，5~6句适中

How to develop body paragraphs

1 2 3 4 5 6

2. 正文段连贯性

① transitional words ② 正文段排序

论据之间关系：并列；递进

并列：按重要性递减排序；如重要性无法判断，按出现次序排序 递进：按逻辑链次序排序

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2 + 3 + 4 + 5 1

6 + 7

3 5

2 + 4

1 1 2 + 3 4 5

1 + 2 3 + 6 + 4 5

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3. 写作要求的应对  evidence 52道  assumption 50道  question 62道  explanation 10道

4. 句式的使用

北美范文书：逻辑错误要自己找，正文段排序要用我们讲过的步骤和次序。这本书主要借鉴语言：只参考核心的用字，骨架结构的句式，和段落内部语言的展开和衔接。

5. 常用论证方式

6. 模板的构造

(1) 直接构造 (2) 间接构造

How to Write the Concluding Paragraph

Basic Elements

Reprise of evaluation (R) Concession (C) Suggestion (S) Explanation (E)

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



 

CCC未必影响环境和动物 (两个信息不完整, 一个数据模糊性)

CCC未必污染, (段内让步)用于采矿比例未知, 和动物栖息地关

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系未知



即便有影响, 结论的三个可行性问题 即使结论可行, 结论的两个充分性必要性

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E C C’ F C R E S 祝大家考试顺利，申请成功！23