Chapter 1 Marketing： Managing Profitable Customer Relationships
Marketing:
goal of marketing： attract new customers by promising superior value keep and grow current customers by delivering satisfaction definition (it involves satisfying customer needs) process:
1. Understanding the marketplace and customer needs
Needs： physical needs (food， clothing， warmth, safety） social needs （belonging and affection) individual needs（knowledge, self—expression)
Wants： wants are shaped by one's society and are described in terms of objects
that will satisfy needs。 （Food—Big Mac, rice)
Demands： given their wants and resources, people demand products with benefits
that add up to the most value and satisfaction
需要（已有）→欲望→需求(创造) Market offerings: 营销对象 physical products
services， activities or benefits offered for sale(not result in ownership) entities（persons， places， organizations， information， ideas)
marketing myopia： 营销近视
the customer will have the same need but want the new product solution： look beyond the attributes and existing customer wants product benefits and experiences， and customer’s needs offer superior customer value(create brand experiences) e。g。 Disney World， F1 race
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Customer value and satisfaction：
customers form expectations about the value and satisfaction that various market offerings will deliver and buy accordingly
价值=总收益—总成本
marketers: set the right level of expectations
Exchanges交换（包含donation）bring about a response（votes， membership， audience，
acceptance)
Relationship交易关系 goal： retain customers and grow their business
Markets: marketing means managing markets to bring about profitable customer
relationships
Marketing system:
actor： suppliers， company, competitors, intermediaries， final users affected by major environmental forces： demographic, economic， physical，
technological， political/legal, social/cultural
each party adds value for the next level。 success depends on the entire system.
2. Designing a customer-driven marketing strategy Marketing management: 营销管理
Selecting customers to serve: market segmentation, target marketing
demarketing（reduce/shift demand temporarily or permanently, e.g.奢侈
品，旅游景点，限量版)
customer management, demand management 需求与资源匹配
select only customers that it can serve well and profitably
Choosing a value proposition: differentiate, position the product
Marketing management orientations：经营理念(philosophy guiding these marketing
strategies)
Production concept： consumers favor products that are available and highly affordable。
生产观念 Management focuses on improving production and distribution efficiency。 Marketing short—sightedness， losing sight of satisfying customer needs.
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(e.g。亨利福特T型车，代工企业）
Product concept: consumers favor products that offer the most in quality, performance，
产品观念 and innovative features。
Marketing strategy focuses on making continuous product improvement。 Focusing only on products can lead to marketing myopia。
(e。g. mousetrap compared with chemical spray， services, 4 Ps） Selling concept: undertaking a large-scale selling and promotion
推销观念 practiced with unsought goods（buyers do not normally think of buying, e。
g。 insurance, blood donations)大萧条时期
Focus on creating sales transaction rather than on building long—term，
profitable customer relationships
Sell what they make rather than making what the market wants Product-centered “make and sell ”
Marketing concept: customer—centered “sense and respond\"
营销观念 Find the right product for your customers
对比:Selling concept ＆ Marketing concept
Customer driven & Customer driving P10
Societal concept： companies should balance three considerations in setting their
社会营销观念 marketing strategies： company profits， consumer wants, and society’s
interests。
e。g。 垃圾食品，石油危机，外部性，企业道德（J&J召回）
3. Preparing an integrated marketing plan and program deliver the intended value to target customers transform the marketing strategy into action
marketing mix: 营销组合 major tools： product price promotion place
integrated marketing program整合营销计划： blend all marketing mix tools into
a comprehensive plan that communicates and delivers the intended value to chosen customers。
4. Building customer relationships （most important)
Customer relationship management (CRM） 客户关系管理： deals with all the aspects
of acquiring, keeping and growing customers。
Customer value: buy from the firm that offers greatest perceived value. Do not judge product value and cost accurately
Customer satisfaction: higher level satisfaction lead to greater loyalty， thus
better company performance
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Promise only what they can deliver, deliver more than promise (Samsung, focus on the delight factor， design， style, image， brand
experience， brand personality, overall company culture）
Do not attempt to maximize customer satisfaction Generate customer value profitably
Customer relationship levels： basic relationship (low-margin customers)
full relationship (high—margin customers）
Customer relationship tools： frequency marketing programs
（reward customers who buy frequently or in large amounts) club marketing programs
(offer members special benefits and create member communities)
structural ties， financial and social benefits
Changing nature of customer relationships：
more carefully selected customers: selective relationship management customer profitability analysis relating for the long term: retain current customers
realities: changing demographics, more sophisticated competitors and overcapacity mean fewer customers， higher cost to attract new ones
relating directly: virtually buying, telephone， mail, online. Partner relationship management:合作伙伴关系管理
Inside the company: link all departments to create customer value every functional area， electronically form cross-functional customer teams
outside the firm: suppliers， channel partners， and competitors
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marketing channels: distributors, retailers to buyers
supply chain: raw material to final product to buyers supply chain management
strategic alliance (e。g. McDonald & Sinopec）
5. Capturing value from customers
Creating customer loyalty and retention：
Aim of CRM is to create not just customer satisfaction but customer delight
Customer lifetime value:顾客生命价值
Aim high in building customer relationships （long-term)
Growing share of customer: Share of customer：顾客份额
Offer greater variety, train employees to cross—sell and up-sell (e.g。
Amanzon sell other products， recommend related products）
Building customer equity：
Ultimate aim of CRM is to produce high customer equity Customer equity:顾客资产
A better measure of a firm’s performance than current sales or market share
View customer as assets that need to be managed and maximized
Classify customers： potential profitability, projected loyalty， require
different relationship management strategies
Build the right relationships with the right customers
New landscape: digital age, globalization, ethics and social responsibility, not
—for-profit marketing （school， hospital, museum， zoo, church， government agency）
Chapter 2 company and marketing strategy： partnering to build
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customer relationships (overall strategic planning process)
Companywide strategic planning公司层面战略规划：
1. Defining a market—oriented mission （mission statement使命陈述)
market oriented and defined in terms of customer needs. (product—oriented vs。 market-oriented）
fit the market environment
based on its distinctive competencies
motivating（not as making more sales or profits) 2。 Setting company objectives and goals
Turn mission into detailed supporting objectives for each level of management A hierarchy of objectives， including business objectives（公司目标,有时间,有数据,可测量,具化） and marketing objectives(营销目标）
Marketing strategies and programs must be developed to support these marketing objectives
In this way, translate mission into a set of objectives for the current period 3. Designing the business portfolio（业务组合）
Fit its strengths and weaknesses to the opportunities in the environment
A. Analyzing the current business portfolio (major activity in strategic planning）
(1）Identify the key business making up the company
Strategic business unit （SBU战略业务单元）： company division， product line
within a division， single product or brand
（2)Assess the attractiveness of its various SBUs （3）Decide how much support each deserves
BCG矩阵 growth—share matrix(market growth rate-attractiveness
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relative market share—company strength）
Stars明星类：need heavy investment
Cash cows现金牛：need less investment， produce a lot of cash
Question marks问题类：require a lot of cash. Management must think hard about
which question marks it should try to build into stars
Dogs狗类：do not promise to be large source of cash
Four strategies for each SBU: Invest more to build its share Invest just enough to hold its share Harvest the SBU （milking short term cash） Divest the SBU （selling or phasing it out） Life cycle of SBU： Q→S→CC→D
Problems： difficult in defining SBUs and measuring market share and growth，
time consuming and costly to implement, focus on current businesses， not future planning
Solution： customized approach, decentralize strategic planning,
cross-functional teams。
B。 Shaping the future portfolio—growth and downsizing Growth：
Finding business and products the company should consider in the future
Marketing has the main responsibility for achieving profitable growth for the
company, must identify， evaluate, and select market opportunities and lay down strategies for capturing them
Product/market expansion grid 产品/市场扩展方格， 安索洛夫方格
(Indentify company growth opportunities)
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Market penetration： new stores， advertising， prices, service， menu
市场渗透 selection, store design
Market development： new demographic markets， new geographical
市场开发 markets 出口转内销，发现新用途
Product development: modified or new products 新品种,新口味
产品开发
Diversification： starting up or buying new businesses
多样化
Downsizing： 精简
Environment changes, making some products or markets less profitable
Firm may have grown too fast or entered areas where it lacks experience Some products or business units age and die
(prune， harvest, divest them， focus on promising growth opportunities） Planning marketing and other functional strategies （4)
Major functional departments work together to accomplish strategic objectives 1. Partnering with other company departments
Value chain价值链: Each department carries out value-creating activities to design,
produce, market， deliver， and support the firm’s products
2。 Partnering with others in the marketing system
Value—delivery network 价值传递网络： Company, suppliers， distributors and
ultimately customers who partner with each other to improve performance of the entire system
Marketing strategy: 营销战略
segmentation, targeting， differentiation and positioning
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Marketing mix： 4 Ps （4 Cs: from buyer’s view) 从4 Cs出发，以4Ps为框架执行
Chapter 4 Managing marketing information （marketplace elements）
Marketing information system(MIS）营销信息系统 P87 1。 Assessing marketing information needs
Balances the information users would like to have against what they really need
and what is feasible to offer Issues to consider:
Amount of information (provide the information decision makers should have) Availability of information (cannot provide needed information， not available or because of MIS limitation, e。g。competitor’s strategy， resulting change） Cost (additional information isn’t worth obtaining, costs vs。 benefits) 2。 Developing marketing information A。 Internal data:
Internal database: 内部数据库data sources within the company network Advantage： can be assessed more quickly and cheaply
Disadvantage： incomplete （记录过去情况）or in the wrong form（不同部门之间格式转
换） age quickly， large amount of information， must be well integrated
and readily accessible
B. Marketing intelligence： 营销情报 publicly available information
Goal: improve strategic decision making, assess and track competitors’ actions,
provide early warning of opportunities and threats
Sources: published information, products, sales， new patents, annual reports,
business publications, trade show exhibits, press releases， advertisements, web page.
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C。 Marketing research： 市场调查 formal studies of specific situations （e.g。
consumer satisfaction, purchase behavior， market potential， market share, effectiveness of 4 Ps）
(1）Defining the problem and research objectives Types of objectives：
Exploratory research探索性调查 gather preliminary information to define the
problem and suggest hypotheses
Descriptive research描述性调查 describe things（e。g. market potential for
a product, demographics and attitudes of consumers who buy the product）
Casual research因果性调查test hypotheses about cause—and-effect
relationships
Managers start with exploratory research and later follow with descriptive or
casual research
(2)Developing the research plan
Determine the exact information needed
Research objectives must be translated into specific information needs
Develop a plan for gathering it effectively
Research plan: sources of existing data, specific research approaches, contact
methods, sampling plans and instruments to gather new data Secondary data二手数据：
Internal database, external database （business， government， internet) Advantage: quickly, lower cost, provide data that an individual company can’t collect
on its own (not directly available， too expensive to collect)
Disadvantage： availability （may not exist）, relevance （fits needs), accuracy
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（reliable sources）， current （up—to—date） impartial (软新闻)
Primary data一手数据:
Research approaches：
Observational research观察法调查 Best suited for exploratory research
Observing relevant people， actions and situations Ethnographic research人类学研究sending trained observers Survey research问卷调查
Most widely used， gathering descriptive information （knowledge,
attitudes， preferences, buying behavior)， asking directly Advantage： flexibility
Disadvantage: unable or unwilling to respond， give misleading or
pleasing answers， don’t have time， privacy concerns
Experimental research实验法调查
Gathering casual information 广告效果测试，口味测试，价格测试 Contact methods
Mail questionnaires邮寄问卷
Telephone interviewing电话采访interviewer bias Personal interviewing人员调查
Individual interviewing: 采用便捷样本
Group interviewing（focus group interviewing): 焦点小组访谈 6～10人
Online marketing research
Internet survey， online panels, experiments， online focus groups Sampling plan:抽样计划
Sampling unit(who is to be surveyed）与企业本身产品的目标市场一致 Sample size
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Sampling procedure
Probability sample简单随机抽样，分层抽样（年龄），集群抽样（区域） Nonprobability sample 便捷样本，判断样本,配额样本 Research instruments:调查工具
Questionnaire： closed-end questions (easier to interpret and tabulate)
open-end questions (exploratory）
Simple, direct, unbiased wording; in a logical order
Mechanical devices： people meters, checkout skinner, eye camera
➢ Present the plan to management
Presented in a written proposal： problems, objectives, information needed,
the way the results will help decision making, research cost
(3）Implementing the research plan
Collecting data： marketing research staff or outside firms The most expensive and the most subject to error
(Refuse to cooperate， biased, interviewer mistakes or shortcuts) Processing the information: isolate important information and findings， check
data for accuracy and completeness， code it for analysis
Analyzing the information： tabulate the results, compute statistical measure (4)Interpreting and reporting the findings
Managers and researchers work together closely， share responsibility 3. Analyzing marketing information
Advanced statistical analysis to learn more about the relationships within a
set of data, involving a collection of analytical models that will help marketers make better decision
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Customer touch point： customer purchases, sales force contacts， service and support
calls, web site visits, satisfaction surveys, credit and payment interactions， research studies
Analyze and use individual customer data：
CRM： managing detailed information about individual customers and carefully
managing customer touch point to maximize customer loyalty
Consists of sophisticated software and analytical tools, integrate customer
information from all sources, analyze it in depth， apply the results to build stronger customer relationships
Data warehouses: 数据仓库 a companywide electronic database of finely detailed
customer information
Data mining: sift through data and dig out interesting findings about customers CRM is one part of an effective overall customer relationship management strategy 4。 Distributing and using marketing information
Chapter 5 Consumer markets and consumer buyer behavior
Model of consumer behavior：
Stimulus response model： marketing stimuli 营销刺激物: 4 Ps
P117 other stimuli： economic， technological, political， cultural buyer’s black box： characteristics， decision process Characteristics affecting consumer behavior:
Cultural factors：
Culture: the most basic cause of a person's wants and behavior， from family and
other important institutions （school) Cultural shifts： new products
Subculture: within a culture民族，宗教，种族，地域
Social class： permanent and ordered divisions， measured by a combination of
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occupation, income, education, wealth， and other variables
Social factors:
Groups：群体
Membership groups成员群体direct influence， to which a person belongs Reference groups参照群体direct or indirect points of comparison or reference Aspirational groups期望群体reference groups to which a person wishes to belong Opinion leaders意见领袖people within a reference group who， because of special skills，
knowledge, personality, or other characteristics, exert social influence
on others. (influentials or leading adopters）
Buzz marketing口碑营销enlist or even create opinion leaders to spread the word
Online social networking： blogs, social networking sites like 。com, a new form
of buzz marketing
Family： the most important consumer buying organization Husband—wife involvement： courting the opposite sex
Children: highly regarded in Asian cultures, children-related industry Roles and status: people choose products appropriate to their roles and statues
Personal factors:
Age and life-cycle stage:年龄、生命周期阶段 RBC Royal Bank five life-stage segments Youth: 小于18，教育资金
Getting started： 18—35 贷款，信用卡 Builder: 35-50 鼎盛期，贷款
Accumulators: 50—60 财富积累，理财 Preservers： 大于60 财产转移，继承
Occupation: bluecollar workers vs。 executives
Economic situation: include trends in personal income, savings， interest rates Lifestyle： a person’s pattern of living as expressed in his or her psychographics
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AIO dimension： activity, interest， opinion VALS： lifestyle classification P124 8种
Primary motivation: ideals（knowledge and principles)
achievements (demonstrate success)
self-expression (activity, variety, risk）
Resources: income， education， health， self-confidence, energy… Personality and
Brand personality： the specific mix of human traits attributed to a particular brand
Consumers are likely to choose brands with personalities that match their own
Self-concept （self—image)
Premise: people’s possessions contribute to and reflect their identities Real self： 真实 self—image:自我 looking-glass self:他人 ideal self:理想
Psychological factors:
Motivation动机: A need that is sufficiently pressing to direct the person to seek
satisfaction of the need
Sigmund Freud theory： people are largely unconscious about the real
psychological forces shaping their behavior
Abraham Maslow: human needs are arranged in a hierarchy, people are driven
by particular needs at particular times
Physiological, safety， social, esteem, self-actualization needs Perception感知:
Three perceptual processes:
Selective attention选择性注意screen out most of the information
Selective distortion选择性歪曲/曲解interpret information in a way that will support
what they already believe
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Selective retention选择性保留retain information that supports their attitudes and
beliefs
Learning学习Changes in an individual’s behavior arising from experience and occurs through
interplay of drives, stimuli, cues, responses and reinforcement
Marketer： associating the product with strong drives， using motivating
cues， and providing positive reinforcement
Beliefs and attitudes信念和态度
Belief: A descriptive thought that a person has about something based on knowledge,
opinion， or faith
Attitude： A person’s relatively consistent evaluations, feelings, and
tendencies toward an object or idea。
It is difficult to change. Fit into existing attitudes。 Types of buying behavior decision
Based on degree of buyer involvement and degree of differences among brands:
1. Complex buying behavior复杂性购买行为Highly involved, significant differences Expensive, risky， purchased infrequently， highly self—expressive
Marketer： understand the information-gathering and evaluation behavior of
consumers， help buyers learn about attributes and their relative importance， differentiate brand’s features, and motivate store salespeople and buyer’s acquaintances
Focus on product增加产品特性
2. Dissonance—reducing buying behavior减少失调购买行为Highly involved， little difference
Expensive, risky， infrequent purchase
Buyers primarily response to a good price or to purchase convenience
Postpurchase dissonance： notice disadvantage or hear favorable words about a
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product not purchased
Marketer： after—sale communications should provide evidence and support Focus on CRM（投诉处理、维修等）
3。 Habitual buying behavior习惯性购买行为low involved, little difference
Low—cost， frequently purchased
Brand familiarity rather than brand conviction （passively receive information） Marketer： use sales and price promotion to stimulate products trial， ad stresses
a few key points， more visual symbols and imaginary, high repetition of short—duration message, better use TV ad， based on classical conditioning theory(buyers learn to identify a certain product by a symbol repeatedly attached to it)
Focus on distribution
4. Variety—seeking buying behavior寻求多样化购买行为low involved, significant differences Consumers do a lot of brand switching for variety rather than dissatisfaction Market leader: encourage habitual buying behavior by dominating shelf space,
keeping shelves full stocked, running frequent reminder advertising
Challenger firms： encourage variety seeking by offering lower prices， special
deals， coupons and free sample， and advertising reasons for something new
Focus on distribution and promotion The buyer decision process 1。 Need recognition需求确认
Internal stimuli （normal need rises to a drive） external stimuli （ad, discussion) 2。 Information search信息收集
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Personal sources： family， friends, neighbors， acquaintances） most effective Commercial sources: ad, salespeople, web, dealers， packaging， diaplay
Public sources 公开： mass media， consumer—rating organizations， Internet searches
质量检测
Experiential sources体验性： handling, examining, using the product使用经历 3。 Evaluation of alternatives方案评价process information to arrive at brand choices Careful calculations and logical thinking; buy on impulse and rely on intuition 4. Purchase decision购买决策
Between purchase intention and decision：
Attitudes of others, unexpected situational factors 5. Post-purchase behavior购买后行为
Consumer expectations and products’ perceived performance
Cognitive dissonance认知失调： Discomfort caused by postpurchase conflict
Consumer satisfaction is a key to building profitable relationships with
consumers—to keeping and growing consumers and reaping their customer lifetime value
Marketer： measure customer satisfaction regularly， set up systems that encourage
customers to complain
The buyer decision process for new products
Stages in adoption process采纳过程from first learning to final regular user Awareness： become aware, but lack of information
Interest： seek information
Evaluation： consider whether trying it make sense Trial: try the new product in a small scale Adoption: make full and regular use of it
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Individual differences in innovativeness Innovator: venturesome
Early adopter： guided by respect, opinion leader, early but cautiously Early majority： deliberate, before the average person
Late majority: skeptical， after majority of people have tried it
Laggards： tradition bound， suspicious， adopt only when they become tradition 采纳曲线/扩散曲线 time of adoption/diffusion of innovations P135
Firm： research characteristics of innovators and early adaptors and direct market to them
Innovators: younger， better educated， higher in income, more receptive to unfamiliar
things， rely more on their own values and judgment， more willing to take risks， less brand loyal, take advantage of special promotion
Influence of product characteristics on rate of adoption
Relative advantage相对优势: superior to existing products
Compatibility： fits the value and experiences of potential consumers Complexity: difficult to understand or use
Divisibility: tried on a limited basis (e.g。price）
Communicability: results of using can be observed or described to others
Chapter 7 Customer—driven marketing strategy： creating value for target
customers （STP 营销核心)
Market segmentation
Segmenting consumer markets
1. Geographic segmentation地理划分
Nations， regions， states, counties, cities， density， climate, neighborhoods Companies： localize products， ad, promotion and sales efforts； cultivate as-yet
untapped territory; developing stores in higher-density urban areas
2。 Demographic segmentation人口划分 most popular， consumer needs， wants and usage
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rates vary closely with it， easier to measure
Age and life—cycle stage： guard against stereotype， positive image and appeals Gender: clothing， cosmetics, toiletries, magazines
Income： automobile， clothing， cosmetics， financial services， travel Affluent or low—income 3. Psychographic segmentation心理划分
Social class, lifestyle, personality characteristics
4。 Behavioral segmentation行为划分best starting point for building market segments，
buyers’ knowledge， attitudes， uses, or response to a product
Occasions： holidays, special occasions （e.g。 Valentine’s day， wedding, birthday) Benefits sought: different benefits buyers seek from the product e。g.不同功效的牙膏，match each segment’s benefit preferences
User status： nonusers， ex-users， potential users， first—time users, regular
users
e.g. blood banks， recruit new first-time donors and remind ex-donors
potential users： consumers facing life—stage changes（newlyweds）
Usage rate: light， medium， heavy product users
Heavy users: a small percentage of the market but account for a high
percentage of total consumption
Loyalty status: Completely loyal (buy one brand all the time）
Pinpoint its target market and develop marketing appeals
Somewhat loyal (loyal to two or three brands， favor one brand while
sometimes buying others）
Detect which brands are most competitive with its own Not loyal (want something different， buy whatever's on sale) Marketing weakness
Using multiple segmentation bases: identify smaller， better-defined target
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Segmenting international markets
Using one or a combination of several variables: geographic location， economic
factors， political and legal factors， cultural factors
Intermarket segmentation： forming segments of consumers who have similar needs and
buying behaviors even though they are located in different countries
Requirements for effective segmentation
Measurable: 可测量性size, purchasing power， and profiles of the segments Accessible:可接近性can be effectively reached and served
Substantial：显著性 large or profitable enough, a segment should be the largest
possible homogenous group
Differentiable:可区分性conceptually distinguishable， respond differently to
different marketing mix elements and programs
Actionable：可行动性effective programs can be designed for attracting and serving the
segments
Market targeting
Evaluating market segments
Segment size and growth: current segment sales， growth rates,
expected profitability for various segments
Segment structural attractiveness： competitors, substitute products， relative
power of buyers， power of suppliers
五力模型：company， substitutes， buyers， suppliers, new entrants Company objectives and resources： mesh with company’s long-run objectives
skills or resources needed to succeed competitive advantage
Selecting target market segments:
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Undifferentiated (mass） marketing无差异化营销
Target the whole market with one offer focus on common needs, design programs that appeal to the largest number of buyers
Can’t satisfy all consumers, have trouble competing with more—focused firms Differentiated (segmented) marketing差异化营销
Target several segments and design separate offers for each Hope for higher sales and a stronger position
Increase the costs of doing business 过度细分 e。g。 P＆G, Colgate Concentrated (niche) marketing重点营销
A large share of one or a few smaller segments or niches补缺者
A strong market position: greater knowledge of consumer needs, special
reputation, market more effectively and efficiently， one or a few competitors
Suffer greatly if the segment turns sour， larger competitors may decide to enter
the same segment with greater resources
Micromarketing （local or individual）微营销
Suit the tastes of specific individuals and locations
Local marketing本地化营销
local customer groups—cities, neighborhood， and even specific stores benefits: market more effectively（pronounced regional and local differences） meet the needs of retailers( more customer—specific offerings) drawbacks： increase manufacturing and marketing cost reduce economies of scale create logistic problems
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dilution of overall image形象稀释
Individual marketing （one-to-one marketing， mass customization, markets-of—one
marketing） 一对一营销，大规模定制化
Individual customers
Mass customization： the process through which firms interact one-to—one
with masses of customers to design products and services tailor-made to individual needs
Self-marketing: individual customers are taking more responsibility for
determining which products and brands to buy
Choosing a targeting strategy P182 Company resources公司资源
Product variability产品差异性uniform products, products varying in design Product’s life-cycle stage产品生命周期阶段
Market variability市场差异性same tastes， seek varieties Competitor’s marketing strategies竞争者营销策略 Socially responsible target marketing：
Targeting of vulnerable or disadvantaged consumers， like children Cigarette， beer， and fast—food Differentiation and positioning
Product position: complex set of perceptions感知， impressions印象, and feelings情感 Positioning maps定位地图show consumer perceptions of their brands versus competing
products on important buying dimensions
Choosing a differentiation and positioning strategy
1。 Identifying possible customer value differences and competitive advantages
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A company can differentiate itself and gain competitive advantages by: Product differentiation
Services differentiation： offer speedy， convenient， careful delivery, provide
customer training service
Channel differentiation: channel’s coverage, expertise, performance People differentiation： hire and train better people
Image differentiation: convey the product’s distinctive benefits and
positioning, creativity and hard work, use symbols
2。 Choosing the right competitive advantages How many differences to promote：
Only one: unique selling proposition (USP）, tout itself as No.1
More than one： two or more firms are claiming to be best， risk disbelief
and a loss of clear positioning
Which differences to promote：
Criteria: important， distinctive, superior， communicable， preemptive
（can’t be easily copied)， affordable， profitable
3. Selecting an overall positioning strategy Winning value propositions:
More for more: price difference exceeds the actual increment in quality Invite imitators, economic downturns More for the same The same for less
Less for much less: budget airline More for less: short run
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Losing value propositions Marginal proposition
4。 Developing a positioning statement定位陈述:
To (target segment and need) our （brand） is (concept) that (point of difference） Communicating and delivering the chosen position
Chapter 8 Product, services and branding strategy
What is a product？
Products： include physical objects, services, events， persons, places,
organizations, ideas， or mixes of these entities
Services: intangible, do not result in ownership 没有所有权转移
Experience： what buying the product or service will do for the customer
market experiences, creating and managing customer experiences with their products or company
Levels of products and services产品和服务的层次(整体产品观）
Product planners need to think about products and services on three levels: Core benefit: what the buyer is really buying, problem-solving benefits
核心产品 (e.g。 lipstick—hope, BlackBerry-freedom)
Actual product: features, design， quality level， brand name， packaging that
实际产品 delivers core value to customer
Augmented product： additional consumer services and benefits around the 附加
产品 core benefit and actual product （warranty， instruction）
Product and service classification
Consumer products （personal consumption) P202 Convenience products便利品
frequently, immediately， with a minimum comparison and buying effort
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widespread distribution， mass promotion
Shopping products选购品
less frequently， compares carefully, much planning and shopping efforts selective distribution(fewer outlets， deeper sales support)ad， personal selling
Specialty products特殊品
strong brand preference and loyalty， special purchase effort， little comparison
exclusive distribution独营，专营targeted promotion Unsought products非渴求品
Not know about or know about but not normally think of buying
Aggressive ad and personal selling
Industrial products (further processing or for use in conducting a business） Material and parts原材料和部件
Raw material: farm products, natural products
Manufactured materials and parts: component materials （cement) component parts（tires) Capital items资本项目aid in buyer’s production or operations Installations: major purchase （building， fixed equipment) Accessory equipment： portable factory equipment and tools office equipment Supplies and services供应品和服务
Supplies： operating supplies Repair and maintenance items
Business services: maintenance and repair services Business advisory services Organizations， persons, places, and ideas
Organization marketing:组织营销,推广企业、非盈利组织 Persons marketing： 竞选、明星代言 Place marketing： 城市吸引游客、移民
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social marketing（social Ideas): 影响个人行为public health campaign反对吸烟
Product and service decisions
Individual product and service decisions:
1. Product attributes产品属性 Product quality质量
TQM(total quality management）全面质量管理 Performance quality功能质量： the ability of a product to perform its functions （level） Conformance quality质量一致性: freedom from defects and consistency in delivering a
targeted level of performance （consistency）
For customer： value and satisfaction provided by the product
Product features特色competitive tool for differentiating; value ＆ cost Product style and design款式和设计add customer value
Style： appearance of the product； design： contribute to usefulness as well as looks
2。 Branding品牌
Brand is the name， term， sign， or design， or a combination of these， that identifies the makers or seller of a product or service
For buyers： identify products, say something about product quality and consistency
For sellers: provide legal protection， help segment the market （P＆G)， command premium
for better quality brands
3。 Packaging包装 container or wrapper
Attracting attention, describing the products, making the sale 4。 Labeling标签
Identify the product or brand, describe attribute， promote and support positioning
5. Product support services产品支持服务augment actual products Assess the value of current services to obtain ideas for new ones Assess the costs of providing these services Develop a package of services Product line decisions
Product line length： the number of items in the product line
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Lengthen product line:
Line stretching产品线扩展lengthen the line beyond its current range
Downward: prevent competitive entry (规模经济)， respond to a competitor’s attack,
capitalize on faster growth
Upward: add prestige to current products， faster growth rate or higher margin Combination of both： achieve both goals
Line filling产品线填充add more items within the present range of the line Reaching for extra profits， satisfying dealers, using excess capacity, being
the leading full line company， plugging holes to keep out competitors
Product mix decisions
Product mix (product portfolio）： the set of all product lines and items that a
particular seller offers for sale
Width宽度number of different product lines产品线总数
Length长度total number of items within products lines产品线下产品项目数量 Depth深度number of versions offered of each products in the line每个产品的版本数 Consistency一致性、粘性how closely the various product lines are in end use， production
requirements， or distribution channels不同产品线相似程度
Branding strategy： building strong brands Brand equity品牌资产/权益
the positive differential effect that knowing the brand name has on customer response to the product or service
competitive advantages： consumer brand awareness and loyalty more leverage in bargaining with retailers easily launch line and brand extension defense against fierce price competition
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brand valuation品牌评价 the process of estimating the total financial value of the brand customer equity顾客资产the value of customer relationships that the brand creates
building customer equity, with brand marketing serving as a major marketing tool
Brand strategy decisions
1. Brand positioning品牌定位
Three levels： Product attributes: least desirable level， can be easily copied,
customer not interested in it
Benefits
Beliefs and value： pack an emotional wallop, engage customers on
emotional level
Establish a mission for brand, consistent promise， simple and honest 2. Brand name selection品牌名称选择
Suggest benefits and qualities； easy to pronounce, recognize and remember; distinctive; extendable； translate well into foreign languages 3。 Brand sponsorship品牌持有者/所有者决策
Manufacturer’s brand（national brand）制造商品牌(全国性品牌）
Invest in R&D， design strong ad programs, partner with major distributors Private brand(store brand or distributor brand)私有品牌（零售商品牌）
Advantages: product mix control
Slotting fees货架费 for manufacturer’ brands
Higher margin for the reseller, lower price for customers
Exclusivity (greater store traffic and loyalty) e.g。 屈臣氏，物美，超市发 Licensed brand特许品牌
Co—brand联合品牌 the practice of using the established brand names of two
different companies on the same product
4. Brand development品牌开发 Line extensions产品线延伸
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Extend existing brands names to an existing product category
Advantage: low cost， low risk, meet consumer desire for variety， use excess capacity，
command more shelf space from resellers
Disadvantage： lose its specific meaning, cause consumer confusion or frustration， sales
of an extension may come at the expense of other items in the line
Brand extensions品牌延伸
Extend a current brand name to new or modified products in a new category
Advantage: give a new product instant recognition and faster acceptance, save high ad
cost required to build a new brand name
Disadvantage: confuse the image of the main brand， harm consumer attitudes toward the
other products （if it fails) not appropriate to a particular new product
Multibrand多品牌 (P＆G)
Introduce additional brands in the same category
Advantage： Establish different features and appeal to different buying motives, lock
up more reseller shelf space
Disadvantage: each brand might obtain only a small market share, non may be very profitable
New brands新品牌
Existing brands are inappropriate for new products in new product category
Disadvantage: spread its resources too thin， too many brands with too few differences
between them
Megabrand strategies： weeding out weaker brands， focusing only on brands that can achieve
the number—one or number-two market share positions
Managing brands品牌管理
1。 The brand’s positioning must be continuously communicated to consumers Ad， brand experience, personal experience， word of mouth， Web page… 2. The company needs to train its people to be customer centered
Internal brand building， training and encouraging distributors and dealers 3. Companies need to periodically audit their brands’ strengths and weaknesses Brand audit品牌审计 support, drop, rebrand， reposition
Services marketing
Types of service industries
Governments: court, hospital, police and fire department
Private not—for—profit organizations： museum, church， college, hospital Business organizations： airline, bank, real—estate firms Nature and characteristics of a service
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Intangible无形性
Make the service tangible, send the right signals about quality, evidence management
Inseparability不可分性Provider-customer interaction Variability易变性 Perishability易逝性
Design strategies for producing a better match between demand and supply
Marketing strategy (additional marketing approaches）
Service—profit chain服务利润链link service firm profits with employee and customer
satisfaction P220
Five links: Internal service quality
Satisfaction and productive service employees Greater service value
Satisfied and loyal customers Healthy service profits and growth
External marketing： 4 Ps
Internal marketing: 内部营销orient and motivate employees to work as a team get everyone to be customer centered， precede external marketing Interactive marketing交互性营销quality of the buyer—seller interaction
service deliverer and quality of delivery, high—tech
Marketing tasks:
Managing service differentiation服务差异 The solution to intense price competition： Offer提供物 innovative features
Delivery传递过程more able and reliable customer-contact people superior physical environment
superior delivery process(online, home delivery） Image形象symbols and branding（McDonald’s golden arches)
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Managing service quality质量 Delivering consistently higher quality Harder to define and judge than product quality Customer retention： the best measure of quality
Service quality always varies (interactions between employee and customers）
Service recovery服务补救Empower front-line service employees （authority，
responsibility， and incentives)
Managing service productivity生产率cost side of marketing strategies
Train current employees better or hire new ones, giving up some quality,
industrialize the service (KFC)， harness the power of technology
Efficient in the short run, but reduce long—run ability to innovate,
maintain service quality or respond to consumer needs and desires
Chapter 9 New-product development and product life—cycle strategies
New—product development strategy Obtain new products：
Acquisition： buying company, patent， license
New-product development： R＆D, original products, product improvements， product
modifications and new brands
Reasons of failing （90%): overestimate market size， poorly designed， incorrectly
positioned, wrong time, priced too high， poor promotion， management influence, high development cost, competitors fight back hard
New-product development process
1。 Idea generation创意产生 systematic search for new product ideas
Internal idea sources： （R&D， top management, scientists， engineers， manufacturing staff，
sales people) “intrapreneurial” programs
External idea sources: (customers， competitors， distributors and supplying， trade
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magazines， shows, and seminars, ad agencies， design firms）
2. Idea screening想法筛选spot good ideas and drop poor ones
New—product committee审查委员会（目标,方向,资金,资源) standard written form 3. Concept development and testing概念开发和测试
Concept development：
Product idea产品创意an idea for a possible product that the company can see itself offering
to the market
Product concept产品概念a detailed version of the new—product idea stated in meaningful
consumer terms
Product image产品形象the way consumers perceive an actual or potential product Concept test: testing new-product concepts with a group of target consumers
对潜在消费者进行测试，未正式生产，以找到研发重点和方向
Present to consumers symbolically or physically, a word or picture description
A more concrete and physical presentation of the concept will increase the reliability
4. Marketing strategy development营销战略开发
Designing an initial marketing strategy for introducing the product to the market Marketing strategy statement营销计划书
Target market, planned product positioning， sales， market shares and profit goals Planned price, distribution， and marketing budget for the first year Planned long-run sales， profit goals and marketing mix strategy
5。 Business analysis商业分析 evaluate the business attractiveness of the proposal A review of the sales， costs， and profit projections to find out whether they
satisfy the company’s objectives
Sales: sales history of similar products, conduct surveys of market opinion
Expected cost and profits： marketing， R&D， operations， accounting， finance costs
Use sales and costs figures to analyze the new product’s financial attractiveness
6。 Product development产品开发
Developing the product concept into a physical product to ensure that the product idea can be turned into a workable product
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Requires an increase in investment
R＆D develops and tests one or more physical versions of the product concept Products undergo rigorous tests, have the required functional features and convey
the intended psychological characteristics
Consumer tests： test-drive, rate its attributes 7。 Test marketing市场测试
The product and marketing program introduced into more realistic marketing settings
It costs can be high, takes time allowing competitors to gain advantages, avoids making a major mistake, doesn’t guarantee success
Do: require a big investment, not sure of the product or marketing program Do not： simple line extension, copy of successful competitor products, low costs
of developing and introducing, management confidence Standard test markets标准化市场测试
Find small representative test markets， conduct a full marketing campaign， use store
audits, consumer and distributor surveys and other measures to gauge product performance
Function: forecast national sales and profits， discover potential product problems,
fine-tune the marketing program 预测，发现问题，调试
Drawbacks： costly， take a long time， competitors can monitor test market results
or interfere with them， gain access to the new product before introduction, develop defensive strategies 反向工程，仿造
Controlled test markets控制性市场测试
Research firms keep controlled panel of stores to carry new products for a fee, controlled
test marketing systems track individual consumer behavior， a panel of shoppers reports all of their purchases
Advantages: in-depth diagnostics （repeat purchase analysis， buyer demographics，
earlier， more accurate sales forecasts）, evaluate their specific marketing efforts， less expensive
Disadvantages： competitors gain access to the new product
Simulated test markets模拟市场测试
Create a shopping environment, note how many consumers buy the new product and competing products， often as “pretest\" markets
Advantages： less expensive than others， faster, restrict access by competitors
Disadvantages: not as accurate and reliable as larger， real-world tests代表性差
8. Commercialization商业化introduce the new product into the market
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High costs， manufacturing facility, ad, sales promotion， and other marketing efforts When to launch: 与其他产品冲突,还能改进，经济状况,竞争者状况
Where to launch: a single location， a region, the national market， or the international
market。 Small companies develop a planned market rollout over time, companies with international distribution systems introduce through global rollouts
Managing new-product development
Customer—centered new-product development以顾客为核心的新产品开发
Finding new ways to solve customer problems and create more customer-satisfying experiences,
it begins and ends with solving customer problems
Team-based new-product development以团队为基础的新产品开发
Compare: sequential product development有序的新产品开发
One company department work individually to complete its stage of the process before
passing the new product along to the next department and stage
Bring control to complex and risky projects, dangerously slow
Company departments work closely together in cross-functional teams, overlapping the steps
in the product development process to save time and increase effectiveness
重叠交叉,跨部门合作，设计、生产、营销同时进行
More organizational tension and confusion， faster and more flexible product development
Systematic new—product development系统的新产品开发
Innovative development approach that collects， reviews， evaluates, and manages new—product
ideas
Install an innovation management system, appoint a respected person， set up web—based idea
management software， assign a cross-functional innovation management committee, create recognition programs to reward Advantages of innovation management system：
Create an innovation-oriented company culture
Yield a larger number of new—product ideas (e.g。 3M）
Product life-cycle strategies (PLC）
The course that a product’s sales and profits take over its lifetime It can describe: product class （longest life cycles, ）
product form (standard PLC shape）
brand （change quickly because of changing competitive attacks) styles (basic and distinctive mode of expression， last for
风格generations， passing in and out of vogue, renewed interest)
fashions (currently accepted or popular style in a given field， grow
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时尚 slowly, remain popular for a while, and then decline slowly）
fads热潮 (temporary periods of unusually high sales )
1。 Product development产品开发find and develop a new product idea P247 与新产品扩散曲线一致
2. Introduction引入期new product is first launched
Market pioneer must choose a launch strategy consistent with the intended positioning 3. Growth成长期sales start climbing quickly， rapid market acceptance Meet competition, trade-off between high market share and high current profit 4。 Maturity成熟期sales growth slows or levels off, long—lasting stage Market modifying市场调整 increase consumption of current product
Look for new users, new market segments, increase usage among present customers 应用产品/市场扩展方格
Product modifying产品改进change characteristics such as quality, features, style or
packaging to attract new users and to inspire new usage
Marketing mix modifying营销组合调整change one or more marketing mix elements
Cut price, better ad campaign， aggressive sales promotions, larger market channels, new
or improved services
5。 Decline衰退期sales decline or level off for an extended time
Reasons of declining： technological advances， shift in customer tastes,
increased competition
Maintain维持without change in the hope that competitors will leave the industry ，
reposition or reinvigorate the brand in hope of moving it back into the growth stage
Harvest清理 reduce various costs， hoping that sales hold up， increase profits in the
short run
Drop放弃 sell to another firm， liquidate in at salvage value
Chapter 10 Pricing products: understanding and capturing customer
value
What is a price？
Price is the amount of money charged for a product or service。 It is the sum of
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all the values that consumers give up to gain the benefits of having or using a product or service
The only element in the marketing mix that produces revenue (π=TR-TC=P＊Q—TC）; All other elements
represent costs, can be changed quickly， have direct impact on a firm’s bottom line
Factors to consider when setting prices
Customer perceptions of value： price ceiling
Effective customer-oriented pricing involves understanding how much value consumers place on the benefits they receive from the product and set a price that captures that value
Value-based pricing基于价值的定价use buyers’ perceptions of value， price is considered
before the marketing program is set A company using value—based pricing must find out what value buyers assign to different competitive offers, these values vary both for different consumers and different situations （ask consumers， conduct experiment)
*Comparison： Value—based pricing: customer-driven Consumers—value—price-cost—product Cost-based pricing： product-driven Product—cost—price—value-customers
Good-value pricing超值定价
Offering the right combination of quality and good service to fair price
Involves： Introducing less-expensive versions of established， brand name products
（value menu超值套餐， Armani casual fashion line）
Redesigning existing brands to offer more quality for a given price or the same
quality for less， affordable for majority of customers
Types： Everyday low pricing(EDLP)每日低价charging a constant every low price with few
or no temporary price discounts沃尔玛
High—low pricing高低定价charging higher prices on an everyday basis but running
frequent promotions to lower prices temporarily on selected items百货商店,剩余价值
Value—added pricing增值定价
Attaching value—added features and services to differentiate a company's offers and
to support charging higher prices维持企业对价格的定制权力
Pricing power： the ability to escape price competition and to justify higher price s
and margins without losing market share
Company and product costs: price floor
Cost-based pricing基于成本的定价setting prices based on the costs for producing，
distributing, and selling the product plus a fair rate of return for its effort and risk
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Types of costs
Fixed costs （overhead） costs that do not vary with production or sales level
固定成本 e.g. rent, utilities, heat， interest， executive salaries， maintenance
Variable costs： costs that vary directly with the level of production
变动成本 e.g。 inputs, packaging， raw materials， supplies, marketing
Total costs： the sum of the fixed and variable costs for any given level of production
Costs at different levels of production
Short—run average cost （SRAC） 随产量增加先降低后升高(依靠工人数目增加）
In a fixed-size plant, plant becomes inefficient
Long—run average cost (LRAC) 随产量增加先降低后升高（依靠厂房规模增加） Over different-size plant, diseconomies of scale Costs as a function of production experience
Workers learn shortcuts and become more familiar with their equipment Company finds better equipment and production processes, more efficient and gain economies of scale
Experience curve (learning curve) the drop in the average per—unit production cost
经验曲线 that comes with accumulated production experience
Experience curve pricing: price low, increase sales, decrease cost through gaining
more experience, and lower its prices further
Risks: give product a cheap image, assume that competitors are weak and not willing
to fight it out， a competitor may find a lower—cost technology that lets it
start at prices lower than the old experience curve
Types of cost-based pricing
Cost—plus pricing（markup pricing）成本加成定价Adding a standard markup to the
cost of the product
Markup price（加成价格)=unit cost/(1—desired return on sales回报率/加成率) Wrongly assume that prices can be set without affecting sales volume Reasons why it remains popular: sellers are more certain about costs than demand,
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minimize price competition， fairer to both buyers and sellers
Break—even pricing保本点定价Setting prices to break even on the costs of making
and marketing a product
Break—even volume=fixed cost/ (price-variable cost）
Target profits pricing目标利润定价Setting prices to make a target profit
Internal and external factors Internal factors：
Overall marketing strategy， objective and mix
Pricing strategy is largely determined by decisions on market positioning Pricing objectives： survival, current profit maximization, market share leadership，
customer retention and relationship building
More specifically： attract new customers, profitably retain existing customers,
prevent competition， stabilize the market, keep loyalty and support
of resellers， avoid government intervention, reduce temporarily to create excitement， help sales of other products
Marketing mix tool: the only one a company uses to achieve its marketing objectives
Target costing目标定价pricing that starts with an ideal selling price, then
targets costs that will ensure that the price is met
Non-price position非价格定价战略differentiate the marketing offer to make it
worth a higher price
Organizational considerations: who should set the price and who can influence prices
营销、生产部门的矛盾 External factors:
The market and demand
Pricing in different types of markets
Pure competition: uniform commodity， no marketing strategy
Monopolistic competition： differentiate offers, use branding， advertising，
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and personal selling to set their offers apart
Oligopolistic competition： sensitive to each other's each other’s pricing
and marketing strategies
Pure monopoly: government monopoly, private regulated monopoly, private
nonregulated monopoly
Analyzing the price—demand relationship
Demand curve： a curve that shows the number of units the market will buy in
a given time period， at different prices that might be charged
Prestige goods： slope upward， higher prices mean more quality Price elasticity of demand需求价格弹性
Less price sensitive: unique, high in quality, prestige， exclusiveness， substitute
products are hard to find, cannot easily compare the quality， total
expenditure is low, cost is shared by another party
Competitors’ strategies and prices
In assessing competitors' pricing strategies, factors to consider：
comparison of offering in terms of customer value
strength of competitors competition pricing strategies customer price sensitivity Other external factors
Economic conditions, resellers’ response to price， government, social concerns
Chapter 11 Pricing products： pricing strategies
New-product pricing strategies新产品定价
Market—skimming pricing市场撇脂定价法 high price for high revenue
Setting a high price for a new product to skim maximum revenues layer by layer from the segments
willing to pay the high price; the company makes fewer but more profitable sales （e。g. Sony 先制定高价再逐步降低价格)
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Conditions： product quality and image support higher price
enough buyers want the products at that price
costs of producing a small volume cannot be so high小批量生产不能抵减价格优势 competitors should not be able to enter the market easily专利(研发阶段申请)
High—price strategies combined with a failure to monitor market trends prevent MNCs from
capturing opportunities in rapid growing mid- to low-end market segments
Market-penetration pricing市场渗透定价法 low price for high market share
Setting a low price for a new product to attract a large number of buyers and a large market share; high sales volume results in falling costs， allowing the company to cut its price further （e。g. QB House 取消附加服务，降低价格 Galanz Enterprise 价格战）
Conditions： market must be highly price sensitive
production and distribution costs fall as sales volume increases low price must keep competition out of the market
penetration pricer must maintain its low—price position
Product mix pricing strategies产品组合定价maximize the profits on the total product mix Product line pricing产品线定价
Setting price steps between product line items based on cost differences between the products
in the line， customer evaluations of their different features, and competitors’ price
Price points， associate low—， average-， high-quality with it
Establish perceived quality differences that support the price differences Optional-product pricing备选产品定价
Pricing optional or accessory products sold with the main product附件、配件
Decide which items to include in the base price and which to offer as options Include useful items previously sold only as options in the sticker price Captive-product pricing附属产品定价
Pricing products that must be used with the main products， e。g. blades for a razor
Price main products low and set high markups on the supplies
For services， two-part pricing （fixed fee and variable usage rate) By—product pricing副产品定价
Pricing low-value by-products to get rid of them and make main product's price more competitive
Seek a market for these by—products and accept any price that covers more than
the cost of storing and delivering them
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Product bundle pricing捆绑定价
Combining several products and offering the bundle at a reduced price, e.g. value meal
Promote the sales of products， combined price must be low enough
Price adjustment strategies价格调整adjust basic prices to account for consumer differences
and changing situations
Discount and allowance pricing折扣和折让定价
Reducing prices to reward customer responses such as paying early or promoting the product
Discounts： a straight reduction in price on purchases during a stated period of time cash discount: price reduction to buyers who pay their bills promptly quantity discount： price reduction to buyers who buy large volumes
functional discount(trade discount)： trade—channel members who perform certain
functions, such as selling, storing， and record keeping， e。g. seasonal discount
Allowances: promotional money paid by manufacturers to retailers in return for an agreement
to feature the manufacturer's products in some way
trade—in allowances： turning in an old item when buying a new one依旧换新 promotional allowances: participating in advertising and sales support program促销 Segmented pricing细分定价
Selling a product or service at two or more prices， where the difference in prices is not
based on differences in costs， but in customers, products or locations
Customer—segment pricing： different customers pay different prices for the same product
or service， e.g。 museum, lower admission for students and senior citizens
Product-form pricing: different versions of products are priced differently
Location pricing: charge different prices for different locations， e。g. theater，
university
Time-pricing: vary price by season， month， day and even hour， e.g。 resort， airline
fare
Conditions： market must be segmentable
segments must show different degrees of demand
the cost of segmenting and watching the market cannot exceed the extra revenue
obtained from the price difference
segmented prices reflect real differences in customers’ perceived value
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Revenue management收益管理charge the right customer at the right price at the right time Yield management balances price and demand Psychological pricing心理定价
Considering the psychology of prices and not simply the economics, e。g. consumers usually perceive higher—priced products as having higher quality
Reference prices: 参考价格prices that buyers carry in their minds and refer to when looking
at a given product formed by noting current prices, remembering past prices, or assessing the buying situation
Pricing cues: manufacturer's suggested price, familiar products at low prices, sold in a
prestigious department store
299。99 seen as a bargain price， 300 suggests more quality Auspicious pricing: digit has symbolic and visual qualities
Promotional pricing促销定价
Temporarily pricing products below the list price and sometimes even below cost to increase
short-run sales
Loss leader： products sold below cost to attract customers and hope that they will buy 亏
损商品 other items at normal markup (果蔬等,大量海报吸引顾客顺带购买其他正价商品)
Special—event pricing： attract customers during certain seasons or periods Cash rebates现金返还given to consumers who buy products within a specified time Low-interest financing， longer warranties, free maintenance:
reduce the consumer’s price
Adverse effects： create “deal—prone” customers: wait until it goes on sales
erode brand equity: use it as a quick fix, not developing effective long-term
strategies for building their brands
lead to industry price wars Geographical pricing地理区域定价
Setting prices for customers located in different parts of the country or world
FOB—origin pricing原产地/起点定价goods are placed free on board a carrier, the customers
pay the freight from the factory to the destination
Disadvantage: be a high-cost firm to distant customers风险运费由买方承担
Uniformed delivery pricing统一定价charge the same price plus freight to all customers
Advantage： easy to administer, advertise its price nationally
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Zone pricing区域定价set up two or more zones， all customers within a zone pay the same
total price
Basing point pricing基点定价select a given city as a “basing point\charge all customers
the fright cost from that city to the customer location
Advantage： if all sellers used the same basing-point city， deliver prices would be the
same and price competition would be eliminated Multiple basing points： quote freight charges from the city nearest to customers
Freight absorption pricing免费定价absorb all or part of the actual freight charges to get
the desired business
Used for market penetration, hold on to increasingly competitive markets
Dynamic pricing动态定价
Adjusting prices continually to meet the characteristics and needs of individual customers
and situations
Advantages：
Internet sellers: mine databases to gauge a specific shopper’s desires
measure his or her means
instantaneously tailor products and price them accordingly
Direct marketers： monitor inventories， costs and demand, adjust price accordingly
Buyers: instant product and price comparisons
find the best product and the vendor with the best price negotiate lower price armed with price information online auction sites and exchanges
International pricing国际定价
Prices are set in a specific country based on country-specific factors
Set a uniform worldwide price
Adjust prices to reflect local market conditions and cost considerations
Economic conditions, competitive situations, laws and regulations， development of the
wholesaling and retailing system， consumer perceptions and preferences， company marketing objectives in various world markets
Price changes
Initiating price changes发动价格变动
Initiating price cuts Excess capacity
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Falling demand
Boost sales and share
Further cut costs through higher volume Initiating price increases
Cost inflation (e.g. goods and service tax） Overdemand
Avoid being perceived as a price gouger: maintain a sense of fairness, supported by
company communications, making low—visibility price moves
Meet higher costs or demand without raising prices: find cost-effective ways to
produce or distribute, shrink the product， substitute less expensive ingredients， unbundle its market offering
Buyer reactions to price changes Price cuts: newer models coming
inferior quality, not selling well price may come down even further
Price increases： the item is very “hot”， must buy it now热销 Superior quality
Company is greedy and charging what the traffic will bear Competitor reactions to price changes
Most likely to react: the number of firms involved is small， the product is uniform，
buyers are well informed about products and prices
Price cuts: grab a larger market share
doing poorly and trying to boost its sales
want the whole industry to cut prices to increase total demand price increases: know market better want to be price leader
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Responding to price changes P296
Reduce price to match the competitor’s price Raise perceived value and maintain price Improve quality and increase price Launch low-price “fighting brand” Public policy and pricing P297 Pricing within channel level
Price-fixing固定定价 sellers set prices after talking to competitors共谋
Predatory pricing： selling below cost with intention of punishing a competitor or gaining
掠夺性定价 higher long—run profits by putting competitors out of business倾销
Pricing across channel level
Price discrimination价格歧视ensuring that sellers offer the same price terms to customers
at a given level of trade
Retail (resale) price maintenance: a manufacturer cannot require dealers to charge a 零
售商价格维持 specified retail price for its products
Deceptive pricing： a seller states its prices or price savings that mislead consumers or
are 欺骗性定价 not actually available to consumers (bogus reference or comparison
prices, scanner fraud扫描仪欺诈, price confusion）
Chapter 12 Marketing channels and supply chain management
Supply chains and the value delivery network Supply chain：
Upstream partners: the set of firms that supply the raw materials, components， parts， 上
游合作伙伴information， finances and expertise needed to create a product or service
downstream partners: marketing channels or distribution channels that look toward the 下
游合作伙伴 customer， e.g. wholesalers， retailers
Comparison: supply chain view: make and sell 推销观念
demand chain view: sense and response 营销观念，目标消费者需求
Value delivery network:与供应链本质相同，描述同样的事物，只是表现形式不同
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The nature and importance of marketing channels
Channel decisions directly affect pricing, sales force and communications decisions, whether
to develop or acquire certain new products
Imaginative distribution systems： FedEx， Dell, Amazon.com无中间商，去中介化 Distribution channel decisions often involve long-term commitments to other firms
How channel members add value
Create greater efficiency in making goods available to target markets through their contacts, experience， specialization and scale of operation减少交易成本 n＊n →2n
Transform the assortments of products made by producers into the assortments wanted by consumers， matching supply and demand
Bridging the major time, place and possession gaps that separate goods and services from those who would use them
Key functions：
Complete transactions: information， promotion （传播广告，公关）， contact(发现、帮助
潜在购买者), matching， negotiation
Fulfill the completed transactions： physical distribution, financing, risk taking
Number of channel levels渠道层次
The number of intermediary level indicates the length of a channel
Direct marketing channel： no intermediary levels； company sells directly to consumers
Indirect marketing channels： containing one or more intermediaries
Channel behavior and organization Channel behavior
A marketing channel consists of firms that have partnered for their common good。 Each channel member depends on the others and plays a specialized role in the channel.
Channel conflict： disagreement among marketing channel members on goals， roles and
rewards-who should do what and for what rewards
Horizontal conflict： among members at the same level of the channel
Vertical conflict： between different levels of the same channel （more common） Vertical marketing systems垂直营销系统 Comparison：
Conventional distribution channels： independent producers, wholesalers and retailer,
each seeks to maximize its own profits， no channel member has much control over other members， no formal means for assigning roles and resolving conflict
Vertical marketing systems： provide channel leadership, producers, wholesalers and
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retailers acting as a unified system
Corporate VMS公司制 integrate successive stages of production and distribution under
single ownership, e.g.国企，财阀，财团
Contractual VMS契约制consist of independent firms at different levels of production and
distribution who join together through contracts to obtain more economies or sales impact than each could achieve alone
Franchise organization特许经营(加盟，培训,品牌授权）
Franchisor links several stages in the production-distribution process
Manufacturer-sponsored retailer franchise system （Toyota) Manufacturer—sponsored wholesaler franchise system (Coca—Cola) Service—firm— sponsored retailer franchise system (KFC)
Administered VMS管理制not through common ownership or contractual ties, but through the
size and power of one of the parties （P＆G, Wal—Mart）
Horizontal marketing systems水平营销系统
Two or more companies at one level join together to follow a new marketing opportunity Combine their financial, production or marketing resources to accomplish more than any one company could alone
Competitors or noncompetitors； temporary or permanent； create a separate company
Multichannel distribution systems (hybrid marketing channels)混合营销系统
A single firm sets up two or more marketing channels to reach one or more customer segments
Advantage： expand sales and market coverage
tailor products and services to specific needs of diverse customer segments
Challenge： harder to control
generate conflict (compete for customers and sales)要求渠道分界明显
Changing channel organization
Disintermediation: cut out intermediaries and go directly to final buyers
去中介化，“脱媒” radically new types of channel intermediaries displace traditional ones
Channel design decisions 1. Analyzing consumer needs
The faster the delivery, the greater the assortment provided, and the more add-on serviced
supplied， the greater the channel’s service level
Not have the resources or skills needed, higher costs and prices
Balance customer needs against feasibility and costs， and customer price preferences
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2。 Setting channel objectives
State objectives in terms of targeted levels of customer service, what segment to serve, best channels to use， minimize the total channel cost of meeting customer service requirements
Influenced by： the nature of the company, its products， its marketing intermediaries, its
competitors， and the environment
3. Identifying major alternatives
Types of intermediaries
Company sales force: expand direct sales force
assign outside salespeople to territory
develop separate sales forces for different industries add an inside telesales operation
Manufacturer’s agency: independent firms whose sales forces handle related
products from many companies
Industrial distributors： find distributors in different regions or industries
(exclusive distribution， goodmargins, product training, promotional support)
Number of marketing intermediaries (at each level 渠道宽度、密度) Intensive distribution密集式分销 as many outlets as possible
Convenience products, common raw materials
Exclusive distribution专营分销(独营）give only a limited number of dealers the exclusive
right to distribute its products in their territories Luxury automobiles， prestige women’s clothing
Stronger distributor selling support, more control, enhance image, higher markup
Selective distribution选择性分销use more than one but fewer than all of the
intermediaries who are willing to carry a company's products
Television， electrical appliances
Good working relationships， better-than-average selling effort, good market coverage
with more control and less cost than intensive distribution
Responsibilities of channel members
Agree on price policies， conditions of sale, territorial rights, and specific services 4. Evaluating the major alternatives
Economic criteria经济性compare the likely sales， costs and profitability
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Control issues控制性channel members’ control over the marketing of the product Adaptive criteria灵活性keep the channel flexible, adapt to environmental changes Designing international distribution channels
Adapt channel strategies to the existing structures within each country Complex and hard to penetrate: Japan Scattered and inefficient: China Customs or government regulation Channel management decisions Selecting channel members
Managing and motivating channel members
PRM: forge long—term partnerships with channel members
SCM： recruit， train， organize, manage， motivate and evaluate channel members Evaluating channel members
Public policy and distribution decisions Exclusive distribution arrangement
Exclusive distribution： allow only one certain outlets to carry its products Exclusive dealing： require dealers not handle competitors’ products
Exclusive territorial agreement: producer agrees not to sell to other dealers in a given
area， or the buyer agrees to sell only in its own territory
Advantages: seller obtain more loyal and dependable outlets
dealers obtain a steady source of supply and stronger seller support
Tying agreement （full—line forcing): producers of a strong brand sell it to the dealers
only if dealers will take some or all of the rest of the line
Marketing logistics and supply chain management Nature and importance of marketing logistics
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Marketing logistics （physical distribution）: planning, implementing, and controlling
实体分销 the physical flow of goods, services, and related information from points of origin
to points of consumption to meet customer requirements at a profit
Outbound distribution： moving products from the factory to resellers and ultimately to
customers
Inbound distribution: moving products and materials from suppliers to the factory Reverse distribution： moving broken， unwanted, or excess products returned by consumers
or resellers
Supply chain management： managing upstream and downstream value—added flows of materials,
final goods and related information among suppliers, the company，
resellers and final consumers
Importance of logistics：
Competitive advantage by giving customers better service or lower prices Cost savings to both the company and its customers
Explosion in product variety requires improved logistic management
Information technology development creates opportunities for distribution efficiency
Goals of the logistics system
Provide a targeted level of customer service at the least cost The objective is to maximize profits， not sales Major logistics functions物流职能
Warehousing仓储storage function that overcomes differences in needed quantities and timing，
ensuring that products are available when customers are ready to buy them
Decide on how many， what types of warehouses and where they will be located
Storage warehouse仓库store goods， not move them
Distribution centers分销中心（集散中心、配送）move goods, not store them
A large, highly automated warehouse designed to receive goods from various plants and
suppliers， take orders, fill them efficiently and deliver goods to customers as quickly as possible
Newer single-storied automated warehouses with advanced computer-controlled materials
—handling systems requiring few employees
Inventory management存货管理
Maintain delicate balance between carrying too little inventory and carrying too much Just-in—time logistics system: require accurate forecasting， along with fast， frequent
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准时管理系统 and flexible delivery(2-3天存货,即时生产，即时出售)
RFID： small transmitter chips embedded in or placed on products or packages to provide
greater inventory control。 Companies would know， at any time， exactly where a product is located physically within the supply chain
“Smart tag” technology: place the order automatically with their suppliers Transportation运输
The choice of transportation carriers affects the pricing of products， delivery performance， and condition of the goods when they arrive (customer satisfaction）
Truck: flexible in routing and time schedule, faster service， short hauls of high—value
merchandise
Rail： conventional and most reliable, cost-effective， large amount of bulk products
Water： low for shipping bulky， low—value， nonperishable products， slowest, affected
by the weather
Pipeline: shipping petroleum, natural gas and chemicals from sources to markets Air： least used, high airfreight rates, speedy, distant market， perishables and high
—value， low—bulk items， reduce inventory levels, packaging costs and number of warehouses
Internet: digital products， lower product distribution costs (education） Intermodal transportation： Piggyback： rail and truck 联运 Fishyback: water and trucks Trainship: water and rail Airtruck： air and truck Logistics information management物流信息管理
Management of the flow of information including customer orders, billing， inventory levels， and customer data Design a simple， accessible, fast and accurate process for capturing， processing and sharing channel information EDI (electronic data interchange）电子数据交换
Computerized exchange of data between organizations VMI（vendor-managed inventory)供应商管理库存
Or continuous inventory replenishment system
Customers share real-time data on sales and current inventory levels with the supplier.
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The supplier then generates orders and arranges deliveries for their customers
Chapter 14 Communicating customer value： integrated marketing
communications strategy
The promotion mix
Promotion mix （marketing communications mix): the specific blend of advertising, sales
促销组合 promotion, public relations， personal selling and direct-marketing tools
that the company uses to persuasively communicate customer value and build customer relationships
Advertising广告any paid form of nonpersonal presentation and promotion of ideas， goods or
services by an identified sponsor
Personal selling销售促进short—term incentives to encourage the purchase or sale of a product
or service
Sales promotion公众关系building good relations with the company’s various publics by
obtaining favorable publicity， building up a good corporate image， and
handling or heading off unfavorable rumors, stories and events
Public relations人员销售personal presentation by the firm’s sales force for the purpose
of making sales and building customer relationships
Direct marketing直接营销/直复营销direct connections with carefully targeted individual
consumers to both obtain an immediate response and cultivate lasing customer relationships
Integrated marketing communications整合营销传播 The new marketing communications landscape
Mass markets have fragmented， marketers are shifting away from mass marketing
Vast improvements in information technology are speeding the movement toward segmented marketing
The shifting marketing communication model Less broadcasting and more narrowcasting
New marketing communication model will consist of a gradually shifting mix of both traditional
mass media and a wide array of exciting new， more targeted, more personalized media
The need for integrated marketing communications
Problem: conflicting messages from different sources can result in confused company images，
brand positions and customer relationships
Integrated marketing communications (IMC)
Carefully integrating the company's many communications channels to deliver a clear,
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consistent, and compelling message about the organization and its brands
配合使用5种工具产生协同效应，得到更好的结果
IMC calls for identifying target audience, recognizing all contact points （brand contact),
assess influence each contact points have， tie together all of the company's messages and images, deliver a clear， consistent, and compelling message
Appoint a marketing communications director to unify image
A view of the communication process P373
Marketers are moving toward viewing communications as managing the customer
relationship over time
To communicate effectively， marketers need to understand how communication works.
It involves 9 elements:
Major parties： sender， receiver
Major communication tools: message, media
Major communication functions： encoding， decoding, response, feedback Noise
The sender’s encoding process must mesh with receiver’s decoding process
Words and other symbols are familiar to the receiver
Marketing communicator must understand the customer’s field of experience
Steps in developing effective communication 1。 Indentifying the target audience
A marketing communicator starts with a clear target audience in mind
The target audience affects the decisions on what will be said, how it will be said,
when it will be said， where it will be said， and who will say it 2. Determining the communication objectives
Decide what response they seek， need to know where the target audience now stands
and to what stage it needs to be moved
Buyer—readiness stages： the stages consumers normally pass through on their way to making
a purchase
Awareness→knowledge→liking→preference→conviction→purchase
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3。 Designing a message
AIDA Model: suggests the desirable qualities of a good message
get Attention, hold Interest, arouse Desire, obtain Action
Message content—what to say
Rational appeal理性诉求audience’s self-interest, e.g. product’s quality, value Emotional appeal感性诉求stir up either negative or positive emotions that can motivate
purchase, e.g. love， pride， humor， fear， guilt， shame
Moral appeal道义诉求audience’s sense of right and proper， e.g。 urge people to support
social causes， like cleaner environment， equal right
Message structure—how to say it
Whether to draw a conclusion or leave it to the audience
Whether to present the strongest arguments first or last
Whether to present a one-sided argument or a two-sided argument
Message format—through what way to express
Print ad: headline， copy， illustration， color Radio： words， sounds， voices
TV or in person: plus body language, facial expressions， gestures, dress,
posture, hairstyles
Product or package： texture， scent, color， size， shape 4. Choosing media (channels of communication) Personal communication channels人际
Channels through which two or more people communicate directly with each other， including face—to—face, e-mail， phone， internet chat， mail Allow for personal addressing and feedback
Controlled directly by the company： sales people
Independent experts： consumer advocates, online buying guides
Word-of-mouth influence: neighbors， friends, family members and associates
Buzz marketing： cultivating opinion leaders and getting them to spread information
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蜂鸣营销 about a product or service to others in their communities
Nonpersonal communication channels非人际
Media that carry messages without personal contact or feedback, affect buyers directly
Major media: print media， broadcast media, display media， and online media
Atmosphere： designed environments that create or reinforce the buyer’s leanings toward
buying a product
Events： staged occurrences that communicate messages to target audiences， e.g。 press
conferences, grand openings， shows and exhibits, public tours
5. Selecting the message source
Messages delivered by highly credible sources are more persuasive
Companies must be careful when selecting celebrities to represent their brands 6。 Collecting feedback
Research its effect on the target audience：
Ask the target audience members,
Measure behavior resulting from the message
Suggest changes in promotion program or in the product offer itself Setting the total promotion budget and mix Setting the total promotion budget
Affordable method量力而行（可支付能力)
Setting the promotion budget at the level management thinks the company can afford
Used by small companies， ignores the effects of promotion on sales， place
promotion last among spending priorities, uncertain annual promotion budget， make long-range market planning difficult Percentage—of-sales method销售额百分比
Setting the promotion budget at a certain percentage of current or forecasted sales or as a percentage of the unit sales price
Simple to use， help management think about the relationships between promotion spending， selling price and profit per unit
Wrongly view sales as the cause of promotion rather than as the result, based
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on availability of funds rather than on opportunities， long—range planning is difficult， do not provide any basis for choosing a specific percentage Competitive—parity method竞争对等
Setting their promotion budgets to match competitors’ outlays
Competitors' budgets represent the collective wisdom of the industry, prevent promotion wars
Companies differ greatly， and each has its own special promotion needs， no evidence that budgets based on competitive parity prevent promotion wars Objective—and—task method目标任务（和目标分解部分一致）
Setting the budget based on what the firm wants to accomplish with promotion Defining specific promotion objectives
Determining the tasks needed to achieve these objectives Estimating the costs of performing these tasks
Force management to spell out its assumptions about the relationship between
dollars spent and promotion results
Most difficult method to use, hard to figure out which specific tasks will achieve
stated objectives逻辑严密，停留于理论层面，实际操作不佳
Shaping the overall promotion mix
The nature of each promotion tool P386
Advertising: low cost per exposure, repeat a message many times, more legitimate,
expressive to dramatize products
Impersonal， not directly persuasive， one—way communication， costly
Personal selling: effective in building up buyers' preferences, convictions and actions,
personal interaction， allow all kinds of customer relationships to develop， buyer feels a greater need to listen and respond
Require a long-term commitment， most expensive
Sales promotion: attract consumer attention， offer strong incentives to purchase，
dramatize product offers， boost sagging sales, invite and reward quick response对寻求多样性产品，便利品有效
Effects are short—lived， not effective in building long-run brand
preference and customer relationships损坏企业形象
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Public relations： believable， reach prospects who avoid salespeople and ad， dramatize
a company or product针对大众,正面形象,没有压迫感
Direct marketing： nonpublic, immediate， customized, interactive
Well suited to highly targeted marketing efforts, build one—to-one
customer relationships 双向，交互性
Promotion mix strategies
Push strategy： personal selling， trade promotion, advertising, public relations;
industrial goods companies; B2B
Pull strategy： consumer advertising， sales promotion， personal selling, public relations;
direct-marketing companies； B2C
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